Complete Artist’s Manual: The Definitive Guide to Materials and Techniques for Painting and Drawing

Complete Artist’s Manual: The Definitive Guide to Materials and Techniques for Painting and Drawing Simon Jennings The definitive artist’s reference guide and comprehensive sourcebook of art materials and painting techniques, now available in a modern ebook edition.The Complete Artist’s Manual covers all the elements of painting and drawing from materials to techniques, colour composition and media – the ultimate artist’s bible.In addition, it contains a structured painting course with simple exercises developing into more advanced projects, with demonstrations by well-known practising artists who share their experience and expertise with the reader.Contents includes;SupportsDrawing and painting mediaDrawing and sketchingPainting techniquesColour and compositionWhat to paint – getting startedThe artist’s studioGlossary and directoryThe Complete Artist’s Manual is visually rich and exciting, practical and comprehensive – no artist’s studio should be without it. CONTENTS Cover (#u713c3b0d-8c73-5a06-bd03-ec8e8b6f6468) Introduction (#u1c3362d5-b512-50b9-87c5-d2c3293a32b7) Acknowledgements (#ue3c3955f-52d1-571d-b858-75fab65a7244) 1/ SUPPORTS (#u5b5d412a-94b8-5b1f-a655-298c83d3f160) 2/ DRAWING MEDIA (#ude67cddf-8c40-555e-add6-fe2e0b66bc5d) 3/ PAINTING MEDIA (#ua4b258fa-9c4b-5e96-9733-8792eb215a02) 4/ WHERE SHALL I START? (#litres_trial_promo) 5/ DRAWING & SKETCHING (#litres_trial_promo) 6/ PAINTING TECHNIQUES (#litres_trial_promo) 7/ COLOUR & COMPOSITION (#litres_trial_promo) 8/ WHAT SHALL I PAINT? (#litres_trial_promo) 9/ THE STUDIO (#litres_trial_promo) 10/ GALLERY OF ART (#litres_trial_promo) Reference (#litres_trial_promo) & List of Searchable Terms (#litres_trial_promo) Copyright (#litres_trial_promo) About the Publisher (#litres_trial_promo) INTRODUCTION (#u23b758e7-867b-59b3-bd40-a406f45033d3) Renoir once observed that ‘painting isn’t just daydreaming, it is primarily a manual skill, and one has to be a good workman’. Too often it is forgotten that painting is a craft as well as an art – and a difficult craft to master, at that. At first sight, dipping a brush into paint and applying it to a surface seems easy enough. But there are traps for the unskilled: an inadequately prepared support may warp or buckle; the wrong support can adversely affect the way the paint handles; ill-chosen colours turn muddy when mixed together; poor-quality or fugitive colours will fade in time. By understanding the materials and techniques at his or her disposal, the artist can avoid such pitfalls and increase the pleasures of making art. In recent decades, art schools have tended to dismiss basic skills and techniques as ‘irrelevant’, and they have been neglected in favour of ‘freedom of expression’. In so doing, tutors have thrown the baby out with the bathwater, for without a thorough technical grasp of materials and methods, students of art have no real freedom to express their ideas – it is like asking someone with no knowledge or concept of grammar or syntax to write a novel. This is not to imply that a good craftsperson is necessarily a good artist. Manual dexterity and technical know-how are meaningless if an artist’s work is deficient in thought and feeling. Along with a learning hand, one must develop a seeing eye – and for many people, this is the most difficult part. In the desire to produce a ‘finished’ picture, the impatient student often overlooks the two things that are fundamental to all art: drawing and observation. It is vital to train your eyes by really looking at the world around you, and to keep sketching and drawing all the time. When you draw what you see, you develop your powers of observation and analysis. Your mind absorbs many details – for instance, the way light and shadow create form, how tone and colour alter with distance – enabling you to draw a surprising amount from memory and from imagination. The purpose of this manual, then, is twofold. First, by providing an in-depth examination of the skills and techniques involved, not only in painting and drawing but also in preparing a support and in choosing and mixing colours, it endeavours to encourage a pride in the craftsmanship needed to produce a work of art. Second, by using a wide range of work by respected professional artists as a source of inspiration, it aims to help you develop your personal vision of the world and to find your own voice in interpreting that vision. Editorial Consultants Dr Sally Bulgin Editor and owner of The Artist and Leisure Painter magazines. Author of several art instruction books Angie Gair Author of several art instruction books Art and Technical Consultants Trevor Chamberlain, ROI, RSMA Carolynn Cooke David Curtis, ROI, RSMA John Denahy, NEAC John Lloyd Terry McKivragan John Martin Ian Rowlands Brian Yale With special thanks to: Ken Howard, RA, ROI, RWS, NEAC Daler-Rowney Ltd Emma Pearce Winsor & Newton Demo Artists Alastair Adams Ray Balkwill David Day Jennie Dunn David Griffin Timothy Easton Robin Harris Nick Hyams David Jackson Ella Jennings Simon Jennings Ken Howard John Lidzey Debra Manifold Alan Marshall Kay Ohsten Ken Paine Peter Partington Jackie Simmonds Shirley Trevena Valerie Wiffen Colin Willey Laurence Wood John Yardley Artists Grateful thanks also go to the following artists, who generously loaned samples of materials, artworks and transparencies, and who provided much time, advice and assistance: Alastair Adams Victor Ambrus Nick Andrew Penny Anstice Paul Apps Barry Atherton Gigol Atler Ray Balkwill Valerie Batchelor Joan Elliott Bates Richard Bell John Blockley Jane Camp Sarah Cawkwell Trevor Chamberlain Terence Clarke Tom Coates Jill Confavreux Grenville Cottingham Edwin Cripps James Crittenden Fred Cuming David Curtis David Day John Denahy Sarah Donaldson Jennie Dunn Timothy Easton Sharon Finmark Roy Freer Kay Gallwey Annabel Gault Geraldine Girvan Peter Graham David Griffin Gordon Hales Roy Hammond Robin Harris Desmond Haughton Andrew Hemingway Ken Howard Michael Hyam Nick Hyams Alan Hydes David Jackson Pauline Jackson Ella Jennings Simon Jennings Ronald Jesty Carole Katchen Sally Keir Sophie Knight Tory Lawrence John Lidzey Anna Macmiadhachain Padraig Macmiadhachain Debra Manifold John Martin Judy Martin Simie Maryles Donald McIntyre Alex McKibbin Terry McKivragan John Monks Alison Musker Patricia Mynott Keith New Kay Ohsten Ken Paine Peter Partington Elsie Dinsmore Popkin Penny Quested John Raynes Jacqueline Rizvi Keith Roberts Dennis Mathew Rooney Leonard Rosoman George Rowlett Naomi Russell Hans Schwarz Hil Scott Barclay Sheaks Jackie Simmonds Richard Smith Michael Stiff Sally Strand David Suff Robert Tilling Shirley Trevena Jacquie Turner Sue Wales Valerie Wiffen Colin Willey Anna Wood Leslie Worth Brian Yale John Yardley Rosemary Young Galleries Art Space Gallery, London Chris Beetles Gallery, London Browse and Darby, London The Fine Art Society, London Fischer Fine Art, London Kentmere House Gallery, York Lizardi / Harp Gallery, Pasadena, California Llewellyn Alexander Gallery, London Montpelier Studio, London Museum of Modern Art, New York National Gallery, London New Academy Gallery, London New Grafton Gallery, London On Line Gallery, Southampton Piccadilly Gallery, London Redfern Gallery, London Brian Sinfield Gallery, Burford Tate Gallery, London Westcott Gallery, Dorking Companies Acco-Rexel Arnesby Arts The Artist magazine Berol Bird & Davis Ken Bromley’s Perfect Paper Stretcher R.K. Burt & Co. Canson ChromaColour ColArt L. Cornelisson & Son Daler-Rowney Ltd Falkiner Fine Papers Frisk Products Inscribe Intertrade International Jakar International Khadi Koh-i-Noor Letraset UK A. Levermore & Co. Liquitex UK David Lloyd Picture Framers Martin/F. Weber Co. Osborne & Butler Pentel Philip & Tracey Pro Arte Project Art C. Robertson & Co. Raphael & Berge Rotring UK Royal Sovereign St Cuthbert’s Paper Mills Tate Gallery Publications Tollit & Harvey Unison Winsor & Newton Photographers and picture sources Studio photography by Paul Chave and Ben Jennings Other photography by: Acco-Rexel Ltd; John Couzins; Daler-Rowney Ltd; Ikea Ltd; Simon Jennings; Raphael & Berge SA; and Shona Wood (#u23b758e7-867b-59b3-bd40-a406f45033d3) Before starting a painting or drawing, it is worth spending some time choosing and preparing the surface, or support, as this will have a great bearing on which medium you use, and the effects that you are able to achieve with it. Although the range of canvases, panels and papers may seem somewhat bewildering at first glance, finding the right support for your purpose is not very difficult when you understand the properties of each one. A properly prepared support will greatly increase the longevity of a work and, in addition, you can derive a lot of pleasure and satisfaction from this aspect of the artist’s work. Linen is considered the best canvas because it has a fine, even grain that is free of knots and is a pleasure to paint on. Although expensive, it is very durable and, once stretched on a frame, retains its tautness. Good-quality linen has a tight weave of even threads which will persist through several layers of primer and paint; avoid cheap linen, which is loosely woven. Preparing linen canvas The weaving process makes raw linen canvas prone to shrinking and warping when it is stretched, and it has a tendency to resist the application of size. However, both these problems can be solved by temporarily stretching the canvas, wetting it and allowing it to dry. Then remove the canvas from the stretcher bars and re-stretch it; this second stretching creates a more even tension across the cloth. Cotton canvas A good-quality 410–510gsm (12–15oz) cotton duck is the best alternative to linen, and is much cheaper. Cotton weaves of below 410gsm (12oz) are fine for experimenting with, but they stretch much more than linen and, once stretched, they are susceptible to fluctuations in tension in either humid or dry conditions. The weave of cheap cotton quickly becomes obscured by layers of primer and paint, leaving the surface rather flat and characterless. Hessian Hessian is inexpensive, but has a very coarse weave and requires a lot of priming. It is liable to become brittle and lifeless in time. Synthetic fibres Synthetic fabrics, such as rayon and polyester, are now used in the manufacture of artists’ canvas. These canvases come ready-prepared with acrylic primer and are worth trying out, as they are exceptionally strong and durable, flexible but stable, and resistant to chemical reaction. Canvas textures If you use bold, heavy brushstrokes, canvas with a coarsely woven texture is the most suitable. A smooth, finely woven texture is more suited to fine, detailed brushwork. Another consideration is the scale of your painting. A fine-grained canvas is best for small works, as the texture of coarse-grained canvas may be too insistent and detract from the painting. Ready-primed canvas Ready-primed canvas comes prepared with either an oil- or an acrylic-based primer. It is better to use an oil-primed canvas for oil painting and leave acrylic-primed ones for acrylic paintings, but you can use an acrylic-primed canvas for oils if you paint thinly and on a small scale. Canvas may be single- or double-primed. The latter is more expensive; it has a denser surface, but it is less flexible than single-primed canvas. Canvas weights Wet the stretched linen canvas and allow it to dry. The weight of canvas is measured in grams per square metre (gsm) or ounces per square yard (oz). The higher the number, the greater density of threads. Better-grade cotton canvas, known as cotton duck, comes in 410gsm (12oz) and 510gsm (15oz) grades. Lighterweight canvases of between 268gsm (8oz) and 410gsm (12oz) are recommended for practice only. Ready-prepared supports You can buy ready-primed and stretched supports which consist of a piece of canvas mounted on a stretcher. These supports are convenient, but are expensive when compared to the cost of stretching, sizing and priming your own canvas. Popular artist’s canvases 1 Ready-primed cotton-rayon mix 2 Ready-primed cotton duck 3 Ready-primed artist’s linen 4 Superfine artist’s linen 5 Cotton duck 6 Flax canvas 7 Cotton and jute twill Buying economically Before buying lengths of canvas, work out how you will divide up the fabric to make as many pictures as possible with the minimum of wastage (canvas rolls come in several widths). When doing your calculations, don’t forget to allow a 50mm (2in) overlap all round each picture for attaching the canvas to the stretcher. Acrylic and oil don’t mix Most of the ready-prepared canvases and boards available in art shops are primed for use with oil or acrylic paint. If you paint in acrylics, take care not to buy supports which are prepared specifically for oils. The linseed oil in the primer repels acrylics, and the paint eventually comes away from the support. Canvas texture The formal elegance of this abstract painting is enhanced by the subtle texture of the linen canvas, which appears through the thin layers of oil paint. P?draig Macmiadhachain Blue Morning Oil on canvas 25 ? 30cm (10 ? 12in) Overlap Remember to add a minimum of 50mm (2in) of canvas all round, for when you attach it to the stretcher. SEE ALSO STRETCHING CANVAS (#litres_trial_promo) SIZING FOR OILS (#litres_trial_promo) PRIMING (#litres_trial_promo) OIL PAINTS (#litres_trial_promo) ACRYLIC PAINTS (#litres_trial_promo) Stretcher bars Wooden stretcher bars are sold in most art-supply stores and come in different lengths. They have premitred corners with slot-and-tenon joints. The face side of each stretcher bar is bevelled to prevent the inner edge of the stretcher creating ‘ridge’ lines on the canvas. Stretcher bars come in varying widths and thicknesses, depending on the size of support you wish to make. For a work under 60 ? 60cm (24 ? 24in), use 45 ? 16mm (1?? / in) stretcher bars. For larger works, use 57 ? 18mm (2? ? ?in) bars. Wedges You will also need eight wedges or ‘keys’ for each stretcher. These fit into slots on the inside of each corner of the assembled stretcher; if the canvas sags at a later date, the wedges can be driven in further with a hammer to expand the corners and make the canvas taut again. Canvas-straining pliers Canvas-straining pliers are especially useful for stretching ready-primed canvases. They grip the fabric firmly without any risk of tearing, and the lower jaw is bevelled to give good leverage when pulling fabric over a stretcher bar; the correct tension is achieved by lowering the wrist as the canvas passes over the back of the frame. Other equipment Use a heavy-duty staple gun and non-rusting staples with a depth of at least 10mm ( / in) to fix the canvas to the frame. You will also need a rule or tape, a pencil and a pair of scissors to measure and cut out the canvas; a wooden mallet to tap the stretcher bars together; and a T-square to check that the frame is square (or you can use a length of string to ensure that the diagonal measurements between the corners are the same). Large canvases A support that is larger than 80 ? 100cm (32 ? 40in) will require an extra crossbar between the two longest sides, to support them when the canvas contracts during preparation, exerting a great deal of force. Tacks Using a hammer and non-rusting tin tacks to fix the canvas to the frame is more economical than stapling, but means more work. Pliers Canvas-straining pliers stretch ready-primed canvases firmly and without tearing. Cutting the canvas Use pinking shears to cut canvas; they avoid the need to fold the edges over at the back of the frame to prevent the canvas fraying. Assembling the stretcher frame Slot the stretcher bars together, checking that all the bevelled edges are at the front. Tap the corners gently with a wooden mallet or a piece of wood for a close fit. Checking for square Use a T-square to check that all the corners of the assembled frame make right angles. Double-check by measuring the diagonals with an expanding tape measure or a length of string; they should be of equal length. If the frame is out of true, correct it by gently tapping the corners with the mallet. Stretching the canvas (1) Cutting out the canvas Working on a large table or the floor, lay the frame bevel-side down on a piece of canvas. Cut the canvas to fit the frame, allowing a margin of about 5Omm (2in) all round for stapling (1). (2) Securing with the first staple Ensure that the warp and weft threads of the canvas run parallel with the sides of the frame. Fold the canvas round to the back, and secure with a staple at the centre of one long stretcher bar (2). (3) Tensioning the canvas (4) Continuing to staple Reverse the frame, pull the canvas firmly and evenly, and secure a staple opposite the first one so that consistent straining is obtained. You can use canvas-straining pliers, if necessary, to grip the cloth and pull it taut over the frame (3). If glue size is to be applied, the canvas should be taut, but not as tight as a drum, to allow for possible shrinkage. Repeat the process on the two short sides, so that one staple holds the canvas to the centre of each stretcher bar (4). Check the parallel alignment of the canvas weave. Securing the canvas (5) Stretching and stapling Now add two more staples to each of the four stretcher bars – one on either side of the centre staples – following the sequence shown in the diagram (5). The staples should be evenly spaced at 50mm (2in) intervals. Continue adding pairs of staples to each side, gradually working towards the corners. Insert the final staples about 50mm (2in) from each corner. Note that working systematically out to the corners keeps each side in step with the others. Fastening the canvas completely on one side before doing the next stretches the canvas unevenly. Finishing off (6) Fixing the first corner staple (7) Folding the flaps (8) The finished corner (9) Inserting the wedges The corners should always be finished off neatly; if they are too bulky you will have difficulty in framing the picture. Pull the canvas tightly across one corner of the stretcher, and fix with a staple (6). Then tuck in the flaps on either side smoothly and neatly (7) and fix with staples. Take care not to staple across the mitre join, as this will make it impossible to tighten the canvas later on. Then fix the diagonally opposite corner, followed by the remaining two. If necessary, hammer the folds flat to produce a neat corner (8). Finally, insert two wedges in the slots provided in each of the inner corners of the frame; for correct fit, the longest side of each wedge should lie alongside the frame (9). Tap the wedges home very lightly. The canvas is now ready for sizing and priming. SEE ALSO CANVAS (#litres_trial_promo) SIZING FOR OILS (#litres_trial_promo) Wood panels Wood, for centuries the traditional support for oil and tempera painting, can no longer be relied upon to be well seasoned, so it tends to split and warp. It is also heavy to transport, and is now largely superseded by economical composition boards. Hardboard (Masonite) Hardboard is inexpensive, strong and lightweight. It is available in two forms: tempered and untempered. The tempered variety is suitable for oil paints and primers, and it does not require sizing. For acrylic painting, however, use untempered board, which has no greasy residue. Sundeala board, grade ‘A’, is particularly recommended, as it is lightweight and its surface is slightly more porous than standard hardboard, giving a good key for size and primer. Hardboard has one smooth and one rough side; the smooth side is the one most often used. The rough side has a texture which resembles coarse canvas, but it is only suitable for heavy impasto work, as the texture is very mechanical and over-regular. Hardboard is prone to warping, particularly in humid climates, but this risk is reduced by priming the front, back and edges of the board. Paintings larger than 45cm (18in) square should additionally be braced with a framework of wood battening across the back (see here (#ulink_9f57a731-92f0-5868-b004-4242449d9192)). Plywood Plywood comes in various thicknesses and has smooth surfaces. It does not crack, but it can warp. To keep the sheet stable, size and prime it on the front, back and edges. Large sheets should be battened or ‘cradled’ by gluing wooden battens to the back of the board (see here (#ulink_9f57a731-92f0-5868-b004-4242449d9192)). Chipboard Chipboard is made from wood particles compressed into a rigid panel with resin glue. Thick panels of chipboard are a sound support as they do not crack or warp and don’t require cradling, but they are heavy to transport. Another disadvantage is that the corners and edges may crumble, and, being absorbent, they need to be well primed. Medium-density fibreboard (MDF) MDF is made from pressed wood fibre and is available in a wide range of thicknesses and in standard board sizes. It is a dense, heavy, but very stable material and has fine, smooth surfaces. MDF is easily cut by hand or with machine tools. Large, thin panels may need to be cradled to help keep them flat (see here (#ulink_9f57a731-92f0-5868-b004-4242449d9192)). Cardboard Degas and Toulouse-Lautrec painted on unprimed cardboard on occasions; they used its warm brown colour as a middle tone, and produced a matt, pastellike effect on the absorbent surface. However, a finished painting must be framed under glass if it is to last. Cardboard must be sized on both sides and on the edges to prevent warping and to stop impurities in the cardboard from leaching into the paint. Mount board Heavy mount board, or pasteboard, is available in a range of colours and has a smooth surface suitable for painting in acrylics and gouache, particularly when thin washes and glazes are applied. It is also used for pen-and-ink drawing. Always choose conservation board for work that is intended to last, as this is guaranteed acid-free. Watercolour board Watercolour board consists of a solid core faced with good-quality watercolour paper. The board provides extra strength and stability, and dispenses with the need for stretching paper prior to painting. Check that the core of the board, as well as the paper, is acid-free. Watercolour boards also perform well with pastel and charcoal. Pastel board Pastel paper mounted on board is available in a range of sizes, colours and finishes, from soft velour to a high-tooth, abrasive surface. Canvas boards and panels Commercially prepared canvas boards and panels consist of acrylic-primed cotton canvas mounted on rigid board. They come in a range of standard sizes and surface textures, and are a good choice for beginners. Because they are compact and lightweight, they are ideal for painting outdoors. Cheaper-quality canvas boards with an imitation canvas surface have an unsympathetic, mechanical texture and a rather slippery surface priming, and the backing board is prone to warping. Marouflaging board Many artists prepare their own canvas boards by covering boards with canvas or muslin – a method known as marouflaging. Fabric glued to board provides a surface which combines the unique feel of working on canvas with the greater stability of a firm surface which is not prone to movement under atmospheric changes. Any natural fabric can be used, such as worn linen, cotton sheets or tablecloths, unbleached calico, butter muslin or canvas offcuts. Method Check that the board is cut square and true. Dress the edges and lightly sand the smooth side to provide a key for the glue. Brush away all sawdust. Lay the board over the fabric, then cut the fabric to size, allowing a 50mm (2in) overlap all round (1). With a household paint brush, apply size to the face and edges of the board (2). Smooth the fabric over the board with an equal overlap all round (3). Ensure that the warp and weft threads lie straight and parallel with the edges, as any distortion in the weave will show in the finished picture and be visibly distracting. Apply more size to the cloth, brushing from the centre outwards and smoothing out any creases or air bubbles. When the size has dried, turn the board over and trim across the corners (4). Size a margin around the edge of the reverse of the board, wide enough to stick down the overlapped cloth, which should not be pulled too tight as it may cause the board to warp. Smooth down the flaps of material and fold the corners over neatly (5). Add a final coat of glue over the reverse side to prevent warping. Leave to dry flat overnight before priming. Keying hardboard Before painting on the smooth side of hardboard, lightly sand the surface to provide a key for the application of primer. Preparing a panel To save time, an artist will periodically prepare a batch of panels at once, all cut from one sheet of board. For example, from a sheet of hardboard measuring 120 ? 240cm (4 ? 8ft) you can cut thirty-two 30.5 ? 30.5cm (12 ? 12in) panels, or thirty-eight 25.5 ? 30.5cm (10 ? 12in) panels. Most timber yards cut board for a small fee, or you can cut it yourself. Cutting panels Mark out the sheet with a rule and pencil, making sure all the corners are square, and saw along these lines. Now ‘dress’ the edges of each panel with a sanding block to remove any burrs from the saw cuts. To provide a key for the size or priming coat, lightly sand the surface of each panel. Always use a light touch; too much downward pressure may create depressions in the board. Cradling boards Cut two battens 50mm (2in) shorter than the width of the board. Chamfer the ends and then secure the battens to the back of the board, using wood glue for man-made boards, or woodscrews for solid wood or thicker boards. Gesso panels Gesso panels are the traditional support for egg-tempera painting. They can also be used for oil, acrylic and watercolour painting, but are quite difficult and time-consuming to prepare. Ready-prepared gesso panels can be bought from specialist art stores, though they are expensive. Gesso panels have an exceptionally smooth, brilliant white finish which particularly enhances the translucence of tempera colours. Cardboard and hardboard Cardboard’s warm colour brings a mellow harmony to Toulouse-Lautrec’s oil sketch. Note how the brush drags on the absorbent surface. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864–1901) Woman in Profile (detail) Oil on cardboard For his bravura painting, Tom Coates used the reverse side of some unprimed hardboard. There is a lively interplay between thick impastos and thin, drybrushed marks, with the paint catching on the tooth of the board. Tom Coates Alfred Daniels Painting Oil on panel 25 ? 20cm (10 ? 8in) Marouflaging a board (1) Cutting the fabric to size (2) Applying size to the face and edges (3) Smoothing the fabric (4) Trimming the corners (5) Folding the corner Priming for oil paint To provide a sympathetic surface for oil paint, prime a marouflaged board with alkyd or acrylic primer. If you prefer a slightly absorbent, matt surface, thin the primer with white spirit (about 10 per cent by volume). Time-saving When making up several small boards, you will find it quicker and easier to glue the fabric to a large piece of board. Leave it to dry and then cut it up into the required number of boards, using a bandsaw As long as the fabric is glued down firmly, it won’t matter that some edges have no overlap. Preparing canvas board If you dislike the slippery surface of some commercially primed canvas boards, you can simply apply a further coat of alkyd or acrylic primer, in order to give a more absorbent surface. Matt household paint may be used for sketches or practice work. SEE ALSO PRIMING (#litres_trial_promo) Preparation Paper must always be sized before oil paint is applied in order to prevent the oil binder being absorbed and leaving the paint film underbound. The paper may be sized with rabbit-skin glue, PVA glue or acrylic matt medium, or primed with acrylic primer. Sizing is not necessary for acrylic paints. Types of paper Watercolour paper Heavy, rough-surfaced watercolour paper or handmade Indian paper can be used as a support for oil and acrylic painting. The paper’s texture shows to advantage when the colour is applied in thin washes. For extra strength, the paper can be mounted on to hardboard. Oil-painting paper Sheets of paper, textured to resemble canvas and primed ready for oil painting, are available in fine or coarse grades. Cheaper-grade oil-sketching paper comes in pad and block form. This is convenient for sketching out of doors and is economical for practice work, but you may find that the surface is greasy and unpleasant to work on, like that of the cheaper painting boards. Acrylic sketching paper This comes in the form of spiral-bound pads of embossed, acrylic primed paper, which are very convenient for small paintings and sketches. Paper for oil painting Indian paper and canvas-texture paper Size this with rabbit-skin glue, PVA glue or acrylic matt medium, or coat with acrylic primer. Painting on paper Paper is an excellent and economical support for painting. It will accept most media, as long as you follow the rules of preparation. This painting is in acrylics, worked directly onto a good-quality, heavy-weight watercolour paper. A toned wash of thinned acrylic was applied first, to tone down the white surface and to act as an extra size for the support. Dennis Mathew Rooney Haunt of Ancient Peace Acrylic on watercolour paper 38 ? 53cm (15 ? 21 ?in) SEE ALSO SIZING FOR OILS (#litres_trial_promo) WATERCOLOUR PAPERS (#litres_trial_promo) OIL TECHNIQUES (#litres_trial_promo) ACRYLIC TECHNIQUES (#litres_trial_promo) Function of size Size seals the pores between the fibres of the support, making it less absorbent. This prevents the oil binder in the priming and paint layers from sinking into the support, leaving the paint film underbound and liable to sinking, flaking and cracking. Rabbit-skin glue Rabbit-skin glue has traditionally been used for sizing oil-painting supports, since it has good adhesive strength. It comes in the form of granules, and is available in most art-supply shops. The glue size is made by mixing dry glue with water and gently heating it – but be warned that it smells unpleasant! Preparing size The ingredients should be carefully measured to produce the required strength (see here (#ulink_1f7cd39f-a3b2-5d97-840a-18f8e0136d45)). If the size is too strong, it forms a brittle layer which could cause the primer and the painting to peel and crack; too dilute a size will produce a weak film which allows oil from the upper layers to sink into the canvas. Place the dry granules into the top part of a double boiler. Add the water and leave for about two hours to swell. Heat the resulting solution gently in the double boiler until it has melted, stirring until all the granules have completely dissolved, and never allowing the size to boil – this will destroy much of its sizing qualities. If you don’t have the use of a double boiler, you can heat the glue in a bowl standing in a pan of water (as shown in the illustration, right). Set aside the glue for a couple of hours, to cool and form a jelly. Keep the container covered to prevent any loss of water through evaporation, and to protect from dust and flies. Test the strength of the glue with a finger – the surface should be rubbery, yet just soft enough to split. The split formed should be irregular; if it is smooth and clean, the size is too strong. If this is the case, just rewarm it, add water, and allow it to reset. If the size has not set, you can stir in up to 10g (?oz) of glue and then leave to soak for 12 hours. Preparing size in advance If you are mixing up a batch for later use, it is useful to note that glue size can be kept in a refrigerator for up to a week before starting to decompose. Applying size Rabbit-skin glue is a strong adhesive and must be used thinly, or it will crack. One thin coat is sufficient to size a canvas; too thick a layer forms a continuous, level film on the surface, and prevents the subsequent priming layer from bonding with the canvas. Gently reheat the size until it is just lukewarm and almost jelly-like in consistency. Apply it to the canvas in a thin layer, working quickly before the size begins to dry. Start from the edge, and brush in one direction only – do not make a back-and-forth motion with the brush, as too much size will be applied. Size the back flaps and edges of the support as well as the front. Leave to dry in a dust-free place for about 12 hours before applying primer. Temperature Size may be applied hot to panels and boards, but on canvas it must be applied lukewarm. If too hot, it will soak through and glue the canvas to the stretcher and you will need to prise it free with a palette knife. Hot glue size may also cause fabric to over-tighten. Sizing boards and panels For boards and panels, use the slightly stronger solution described on the opposite page. Thin boards should also be sized on the reverse and edges, to prevent warping. Leave to dry for 12 hours, then sand lightly. Rabbit-skin glue This is the time-honoured size for rendering canvas impervious. Available in granule form, it is dissolved in hot water. Recipes for glue size These measurements are a good starting guide, although you may wish to vary them slightly. For sizing canvas: You need 55g (2oz) – two rounded tablespoons – glue to 1.1 litres (2 pints) water. (Alternatively, use 1 part by volume of glue to 13 parts water.) For rigid panels: Use a stronger solution of 85g (3oz) glue to 1.1 litres (2 pints) water. This recipe will make enough size to cover a support measuring about 120 ? 180cm (4 ? 6ft). Improvised double boiler An effective substitute can be made from a bowl or clean tin can heated in a pan of water. Sizing implements Brush size in one direction only The best brush for sizing is a flat hog varnishing brush, with a good width and long bristles. Decorators’ brushes can be used, but poor-quality ones may shed hairs. Some artists use a natural sponge, which gives more control; gently squeeze out more glue when you feel the surface going dry. It can also be used to mop up any excess. Unprimed supports The warm brown tone of surfaces such as hardboard, plywood, cardboard and linen canvas provides a middle tone which can be incorporated into the painting. To make them suitable for painting on, while maintaining their colour and texture, seal them with a coat of dilute glue size (for oils) or acrylic medium (for all media). Here, Ken Howard uses very thin, turpentine-diluted paint, so that the canvas colour shows through. This gives a marvellous impression of reflected light on the model’s back. Ken Howard Homage to Lautrec Oil on unprimed canvas 40 ? 30cm (16 ? 12in) Alternative glue size A modern alternative to traditional glue size is carboxymethyl/cellulose (CMC). This expands and contracts at the same rate as the canvas, greatly reducing the risk of cracking. It is also easier to use: just dissolve the granules in either warm or cold water (using an 8 per cent solution by volume), leave to swell and apply with a stiff brush. There is no heating involved – and no smell. SEE ALSO CANVAS (#litres_trial_promo) BOARDS AND PANELS (#litres_trial_promo) PRIMING (#litres_trial_promo) FAT-OVER-LEAN (#litres_trial_promo) UNDERPAINTING (#litres_trial_promo) Choosing primer There are various types of primer, each with its different characteristics. It is important to choose the right one for your needs, as it affects the way paint is ‘pulled’ from the brush, and its finished appearance. For example, if you like to work on a smooth surface, you will require a different ground to someone who prefers a slightly textured, dryish surface that gives the paint a matt, chalky appearance. In addition, it is vital that you select the right type of primer for your chosen support. Canvas expands and contracts, and thus requires a flexible ground; therefore an inflexible gesso ground is not suitable. The ground should be absorbent enough to provide a key for the paint, but not so absorbent that it sucks oil from it – a common cause of sinking (the appearance of dull patches of paint across the canvas). Oil primer The traditional, and best, primer for oil painting, particularly on stretched canvas, is oil-based lead-white primer. This is flexible, stretching and contracting with the canvas on changes in temperature and humidity. It dries to form a durable base, which will not absorb too much oil from the paint. Applying oil primer Lead-white primer is quite stiff, and should be let down slightly with turpentine so that it can be brushed out easily. Apply an even coat as thinly as possible, brushing it in well (1). Finish off with a long smoothing stroke in line with the weave of the cloth (2). You should leave this first coat to dry for two days before applying a second coat. The primed canvas should either be used while touch-dry (within a week or two) or be left to cure for four to six months before use. If paint is applied between these times, the primer sucks oil from the paint, leaving it underbound and with insufficient adhesion to the support. Yellowing The linseed oil in which lead white is ground turns the priming coat yellow if the primed support is stored away from the light for any length of time. The whiteness is restored upon exposure to sunlight. Alkyd primer This is a valid alternative to oil primer, as it is flexible, non-yellowing and fast-drying; each coat can be overpainted after 24 hours. Dilute alkyd primer with white (mineral) spirit to the required consistency. Acrylic primer Acrylic primer is flexible, durable, water-thinnable, fast-drying and inexpensive. It can be used to prime canvas, board, paper and other surfaces, and can be applied directly to the support without the need of an isolating layer of size. It dries in a few hours. Acrylic primer is the ideal surface for acrylic paints, providing a bright undercoat which brings out the vividness of the colours and gives added luminosity to thin washes. It can also be used with oil paints on rigid supports, but this is not recommended for canvas painting, except in a thin layer: acrylic is more flexible than oil, and the different tensions may eventually lead to cracking of the paint surface. Acrylic primer is often referred to as acrylic gesso, a confusing term as it is not a gesso at all; traditional gesso is prepared with animal glue and chalk, and is very absorbent. Applying acrylic primer Work from the edges and apply the primer quickly in sections. Use a large brush or a paint roller, and keep the working edge moving, as acrylic primer dries quickly. Leave to dry for a few hours. The second coat should be applied at right angles to the first. When priming board, you can apply as many as five coats for greater whiteness and opacity. For a really smooth finish, thin the last coat with a little water. For a textured finish, impress a piece of canvas (or any textured fabric) into the final coat of primer while it is still damp. Pull it away, then let the panel dry. Checking primers Commercially produced primers may become hard if kept on the shelf for too long, so it is wise to shake a tin before buying it to make sure that the contents are still liquid. Applying primer: • Apply it in several thin coats – a thin coat is pliable while a thick coat is likely to crack and may even flake off the support. • Cover the entire surface evenly. Don’t go back over brushstrokes. • Make sure that each coat is touch-dry before any subsequent coat is applied, and also before starting to paint. (1) Applying a thin, even coat (2) Finishing off Acrylic over glue Never use acrylic primer over animal-glue size, as it will prevent the paint from adhering properly to the support. Paint rollers It is a good idea to use a paint roller to apply acrylic primer. A roller keeps the paint moving and delivers an even coat; for small supports, use a small radiator roller. Working sequence Work in sections; leave primer to dry between coats; apply subsequent coats at right angles. Emulsion paint An economical primer, often used by students, is ordinary matt household paint, which provides a sympathetic, semi-absorbent ground. However, household paint should only be used on rigid supports, and not on stretched canvas. Use only good-quality paint; cheap emulsions have a limited life span. Using primer creatively The lovely, matt, airy quality of Fred Cuming’s paint is due in part to the ground he works on. After many years of painting, Cuming still finds the best primer is a good-quality, matt, white undercoat. When the primer is thoroughly dry, he applies a thin layer of linseed oil to the surface and wipes it off immediately, leaving just a trace of oil. When this is dry – after two weeks – the resulting surface provides a sound key for the paint, and prevents it sinking. Fred Cuming Bathers – Cap Ferrett Oil on panel 60 ? 50cm (24 ? 20in) Brian Sinfield Gallery, Burford Textured finish For a textured finish, lay and then press a piece of textured material, such as an old piece of sacking, into the final primer coat. SEE ALSO CANVAS (#litres_trial_promo) BOARDS AND PANELS (#litres_trial_promo) SIZING FOR OILS (#litres_trial_promo) TONED GROUNDS (#litres_trial_promo) OIL PAINTS (#litres_trial_promo) FAT-OVER-LEAN (#litres_trial_promo) TEMPERA (#litres_trial_promo) ACRYLIC PAINTS (#litres_trial_promo) Egg-oil emulsion This general-purpose, easily made primer is suitable for canvas and board. It is ready to paint on after two days’ drying (see list of ingredients here (#ulink_a111ba12-7352-5d03-8da6-c9f57e283a97)). Break the egg into a jar. Using the eggshell as a measure, add the same volume of refined linseed oil and twice the volume of cold water. Screw the lid on the jar and shake vigorously until an emulsion is formed. Grind a little emulsion with titanium white pigment until it forms a stiff white paste; add the rest of the emulsion to bring the mixture to the consistency of double cream. Thin the mixture to a milky consistency with lukewarm glue size mixed 1 part to 12 parts cold water. Brush very thinly onto a sized support. Traditional gesso Brilliant white gesso (see ingredients here (#ulink_a76de6e5-d3b7-5eae-96a0-8e59d46e2db1)), is very smooth and porous, and is the ideal base for painting luminous colours and detail. Gesso is best applied to a rigid support prepared with glue size – it is not flexible enough for use on canvas. It is most suited to water-based paints, such as tempera, acrylics and Chroma colours. Heat the size, mixed 1 part to 8 parts cold water, gently in a double boiler. Slowly add some warm size to the whiting and stir until it forms a thick paste. Blend without creating excess bubbles. Gradually add the rest of the size until a smooth, creamy mixture is obtained. (Keep the pot of gesso warm and covered, otherwise it will harden, the water will evaporate and the glue will become too strong.) To increase the brilliance, add powdered white pigment. Leave for a few minutes before using. Applying gesso Apply gesso carefully in thin layers and work quickly: if you go back over an area, streaks will develop. Dampen the brush with some water to prevent air bubbles forming on the surface. Apply the first coat of hot gesso in short, even strokes (1), keeping the working edge moving – when the gesso begins to cool, move on to an adjacent area. Apply up to six coats for a dense, white finish; add each coat at right angles to the last (2), using short back-and-forth strokes. Each coat should be completely dry before the next one is applied. Level off in one direction (3). Lightly sand between coats with fine sandpaper (4), dusting off the surface before applying the next coat. Egg-oil ingredients • titanium white pigment • one egg • linseed oil • glue size • water (1) Applying the first coat (2) Adding coats at right angles (3) Levelling off (4) Sanding between coats Gesso ingredients • 1 part Gilder’s whiting • 1 part glue size Sealing gesso On an absorbent gesso surface, oil paint takes on a matt, airy quality which is pleasing but makes the paint quite difficult to handle. In addition, gesso soaks up much of the oil from subsequent paint layers, leaving them brittle and prone to cracking. To overcome this, the dry gesso surface should be partially sealed with a weak solution of glue size (about half the strength used to make the gesso). SEE ALSO PRIMING (#litres_trial_promo) ACRYLIC PRIMER (#ulink_408ef7b6-d5eb-5ba4-9841-b541e609f015) TEMPERA (#litres_trial_promo) ACRYLIC PAINTS (#litres_trial_promo) CHROMA COLOUR (#litres_trial_promo) COLOUR HARMONY (#litres_trial_promo) ‘Reading’ tones and colours A white ground can give a false ‘reading’ of tones and colours, especially in the early stages of a painting, when there is nothing to relate them to. Most colours appear darker on a white surface than when they are surrounded by other colours, and this creates a tendency to paint in too light a key. If you work on a neutral, mid-toned ground you will find it much easier to assess colours and tones correctly, and you can paint towards light or dark with equal ease. If the colour of the ground is allowed to show through the overpainting in places, it acts as a harmonizing element, tying together the colours that are laid over it. Choosing a ground colour The colour chosen for a toned ground will depend on the subject, but it is normally a neutral tone somewhere between the lightest and the darkest colours in the painting. The colour should be subtle and unobtrusive, so that it does not overwhelm the colours in the overpainting. Diluted earth colours, such as Venetian red, raw sienna or burnt umber, work very well, as do soft greys and greens. Transparent and opaque grounds A toned ground can be either opaque or transparent. With a transparent ground (also known as imprimatura), the paint is heavily diluted and applied as a thin wash. A transparent ground allows light to reflect up through the succeeding colours, thereby retaining their luminosity, and it is used where transparent or semi-transparent colour is to be applied. Opaque toned grounds are used with opaque painting methods, where the light-reflecting qualities of a white ground are not so important. Applying transparent grounds Dilute the colour until it is thin, and then apply it with a large decorator’s brush or a lint-free rag. Loose, vigorous strokes give a more lively effect than a flat stain of colour. After a few minutes, you should rub the wash with a clean rag, leaving a transparent stain. Making opaque grounds Mix a little tube colour into the white priming or gesso before applying it (see here (#ulink_03230bed-50f3-53af-bf98-76a69e498c94)). Alternatively, you can mix the colour with white paint, dilute it a little, and then brush a thin layer over the priming. Never mix oil paint with an acrylic primer, or vice versa. Drying times A toned ground must be dry before you can paint over it. An oil ground takes a day or two to touch-dry; an acrylic ground is dry in minutes. So long as it is applied thinly, you can use acrylic paint for the toned ground and work over it with oils. Ground colours Diluted earth colours, such as Venetian red, raw sienna or burnt umber, are subtle and unobtrusive. Jacqueline Rizvi Two Apples Watercolour and body colour on toned paper 17.5 ? 22.5cm (7x 9in) Jacqueline Rizvi rarely works on white paper. The rich, glowing effect of this simple still life is enhanced by the use of toned paper as a base for delicate washes of watercolour and body colour. Paper production There are three ways of producing watercolour paper: by hand; on a mould machine; and on a fourdrinier machine. Handmade paper The very best papers are made of 100 per cent cotton, and are usually made by skilled craftsmen. Handmade papers are lively to use, durable, and have a pleasing irregular texture. They are expensive, but worth the cost. Mould-made paper European mills produce watercolour paper on cylinder-mould machines. The paper fibres are formed into sheets with a random distribution, close to that of handmade papers. The paper is durable, extremely stable, and resistant to distortion under a heavy wash. Machine-made paper Although inexpensive to produce and to purchase, machine-made papers are less resistant to deterioration, but they may distort when wet. Some papers also have a mechanical, monotonous surface grain. Choosing paper Watercolour paper is an excellent surface for acrylics, pencil, ink, gouache and pastel, as well as watercolour. The character of the paper, and its surface texture, play a vital role in the finished picture. Very often it is the choice of paper that is to blame for a painting going wrong, rather than any inadequacy on the part of the artist. Some papers are superior in quality to others, but it does not necessarily follow that an expensive paper will give you better results. The important thing is to find a paper that is sympathetic to what you want to do. For example, it is no good using an absorbent rag paper if your technique involves repeated scrubbing, lifting out and using masking fluid; the surface will soon become woolly and bruised. Popular papers are available in local art shops. Specialist art shops stock less common and handmade or foreign papers; some are also available by mailorder direct from the mill or through distributors, who can send sample swatches, price lists and order forms. Once you have settled on a favourite paper, it pays to buy in quantity. The bigger the order, the more you save. Paper sizes Sizes of papers will differ from country to country, and it is still common practice for art suppliers to describe paper in imperial sizes. The following table is a guide to imperial sizes and their metric equivalents. Medium 22 ? 17?in (559 ? 444mm) Royal 24 ? 19in (610 ? 483mm) Double Crown 30 ? 20in (762 ? 508mm) Imperial 30? ? 22?in (775 ? 572mm) Double Elephant 40 ? 26? in (1016 ? 679mm) Antiquarian 53 ? 31in (1346 ? 787mm) Experimenting with watercolour papers Try out different textures and makes of watercolour paper until you find one which suits your painting style. As you become more knowledgeable, you will also be able to choose a paper to suit your subject. In these examples, the artist has chosen a smooth texture for the nude study (below), which is perfectly appropriate for the tone and texture of the flesh. The winter-evening snow scene (centre) is ideally suited for a medium-texture paper which conveys the effect of misty light and captures the subtle grain of the snow. A rough-texture paper (bottom) communicates the solidity of the building and the dampness of the weather to the viewer. Choosing watercolour papers Choice of watercolour papers is very much a matter of personal preference; one artist’s favourite may be another artist’s poison. The chart below is intended only as a guide to a versatile selection of widely available papers. They have all been tried and tested by professional watercolour artists; however, your own assessment may be quite different. Paper content Apart from water, the main ingredient in making paper is cellulose fibres, derived from either cotton or woodpulp. Cotton is used for high-grade papers, woodpulp for others. Some papers contain a blend of cotton and other cellulose fibres, offering a compromise between cost and quality. Cotton rag The best paper is made from 100 per cent cotton. Although the term ‘rag paper’ is still used, the raw material nowadays is natural cotton linters. Rag papers are very strong, yet pliable, and withstand demanding techniques. Woodpulp Woodpulp produces a more economical, but less durable, paper. Confusingly, papers made of 100 per cent woodpulp are sometimes advertised as ‘woodfree’; this is a technical term meaning wood broken down by chemical means, rather than mechanical ones – it does not signify that the paper has not been made from wood. Mechanical woodpulp still contains lignin, which releases acids into the paper over a period of time, causing it to yellow and embrittle. The chemical woodpulp used in woodfree paper is processed to remove all the lignin. Weight The weight (thickness) of watercolour paper traditionally refers to the weight of a ream (500 sheets) of a given size, most often imperial (about 22 ? 30in or 56 ? 76cm). For instance, a 72lb paper is a light paper, 500 sheets of which weigh 72lb. The more accurate metric equivalent of grammes per square metre (gsm) is now common. Lighter papers (less than 300gsm/140lb) tend to buckle and wrinkle when washes are applied, and need wetting and stretching on a board before use. Heavier grades don’t need to be stretched unless you intend to flood the paper with washes. Absorbency and sizing All watercolour paper is internally sized to varying degrees, to control its absorbency and produce a more receptive working surface. Heavy sizing produces a hard surface with little absorption and a long drying time; this allows you to push the paint around on the surface. Colours remain brilliant, as they are not dulled by sinking into the paper. Lightly sized papers are softer and more absorbent, with a shorter drying time. Alterations are more difficult because the paint sinks into the fibres of the paper, but absorbent papers are suited to direct, expressive painting methods. Internal sizing Internal, or ‘engine’ sizing means that size is added to the paper at the pulp stage, and contained in the body of the paper. Internal sizing renders the paper robust and prevents colour washes cross-bleeding beneath the paper surface, even when it has been abraded. Surface sizing Many watercolour papers are also surface-sized, which is done by being passed through a tub of gelatin size (hence the term ‘tub-sized’). Surface sizing not only reduces the absorbency of the paper but it also produces a more luminous wash (on absorbent papers, colours tend to dry far paler than they appear as a wet wash). It also reduces the risk of fibre lift when you are removing masking material and lifting out washes of colour. Tinted papers Most watercolour paper is either white or off-white, in order to reflect the maximum amount of light back through the transparent washes of colour. Some manufacturers, however, specialize in a range of tinted papers, and these are often used when painting with body colour or gouache. You should always check that the tinted paper you buy is sufficiently lightfast. Good-quality papers will not fade under normal conditions, but cheaper paper may not be as permanent as the colours that are laid on it, and in time the change could affect the overall tone of your painting. Many artists prefer to apply their own tint by laying a very thin wash on white paper. Watercolour sheets Watercolour paper is most commonly sold in sheet form. In addition, many mills supply their papers in rolls, which are more economical, and pads. Spiral-bound pads are particularly useful for when you are working outdoors. They are available in a wide range of sizes, although they usually contain 300gsm (140lb) Not paper. Watercolour blocks These comprise sheets of watercolour paper which are ‘glued’ together round the edges with gum. This block of paper is mounted on a backing board. A watercolour block removes the need for stretching paper. When the painting is completed, the top sheet is removed by sliding a palette knife between the top sheet and the one below. Although more expensive than loose sheets, watercolour blocks are convenient and time-saving for artists. Watercolour boards Watercolour board is yet another way of avoiding the need to stretch paper. It consists of watercolour paper which is mounted onto a strong backing board in order to improve its performance with heavy washes. Try before you buy Smooth-texture paper Medium-texture paper Rough-texture paper Trial and error can be a costly affair, given the price of the average sheet of watercolour paper. However, most paper manufacturers produce swatches or pochettes – booklets containing small samples of their ranges. These provide an excellent and inexpensive means of trying out several types of paper. Trevor Chamberlain Reclining Nude; Snow, Late-evening Effect; Showery Evening, Isleworth All watercolour on paper Various dimensions Texture There are three different textures of watercolour paper: (from top to bottom) hot-pressed or HP (smooth), Not or cold-pressed (medium grain) and rough. Each manufacturer’s range is likely to have a slightly different feel. Handmade papers Esportazione by Fabriano Surfaces: Not and rough Weights: 200, 315, 600gsm Content: 100% cotton rag, tub-sized A robust, textured surface that stands up to erasure and scrubbing and carries washes without sinking. Four deckle edges. Watermarked. Richard de Bas by Richard de Bas Surfaces: HP, Not and rough Weight: 480gsm Content: 100% cotton rag, internally sized A thick, robust paper with a fibrous texture. Washes fuse into the paper structure. Four deckle edges. Watermarked. Indian by Khadi Surfaces: HP and Not Weights: 200, 300gsm Content: 100% cotton rag, internally sized A strong paper, able to withstand wear and tear. Lifting out colour is easy, and masking fluid rubs off well. Artists’ Paper Surface: Not Weights: 175, 250gsm Content: 100% cotton rag, tub-sized, loft-dried; buffered with calcium carbonate Gently absorbent, but robust and firm. Also available in cream, oatmeal and grey. Four deckle edges. Mould-made papers Arches Aquarelle by Canson Surfaces: HP, Not and rough Weights: 185, 300, 640, 850gsm Content: 100% cotton rag, tub-sized, air-dried A warm white paper with a robust, yet soft, texture. Carries washes without undue absorption. Resists scrubbing and scratching. Lifting out is difficult, and fibre-lift occurs when masking fluid is removed. Lana Aquarelle by Lana Surfaces: HP, Not and rough Weights: 185, 300, 600gsm Content: 100% cotton rag, tub-sized A good, textured surface. Lifting out and removal of masking fluid are easy. All weights stand up well to washes without undue buckling. Bockingford by Inveresk Surface: Not Weights: 190, 300, 425, 535gsm Content: 100% cotton rag, internally sized, buffered with calcium carbonate A versatile, economical paper, robust yet absorbent. Lifting out is easy; masking fluid comes away cleanly. 30Ogsm also in tints. Saunders Waterford by St Cuthbert’s Mill Surfaces: HP, Not and rough Weights: 190, 300, 356, 640gsm Content: 100% cotton rag, internally and gelatine sized A stable, firm paper, which is resistant to cockling, and with a sympathetic surface. Scrubbing, lifting out and masking are easy. Acid content Papers that contain an acid presence, such as newsprint and brown wrapping paper, are prone, in time, to yellowing and deterioration. Paper acidity is measured by the pH scale. An acid-free paper does not contain any chemicals which might cause degradation of the sheet, and will normally have a pH of around 7 (neutral). All good-quality watercolour papers are acid-free, to prevent yellowing and embrittlement with age. Some are also buffered with calcium carbonate, to protect against acids in the atmosphere. Increasing sizing If paper is too absorbent, paint sinks into it and colours appear dull. To remedy this, dissolve a teaspoon of gelatin granules in 500ml (18fl oz) of water and apply to the surface before painting. Reducing sizing If a heavily sized paper does not take paint well, then pass a damp sponge over the surface several times. Leave it for 30 minutes, then dampen again before painting. Some handmade papers may need to be soaked for up to two hours in warm water. Trying for size The amount and quality of sizing varies according to the brand of paper. A quick test is to lick a corner of the paper with the end of your tongue: if it feels dry and it sticks to your tongue, you will know that it is absorbent paper. Spiral pads Watercolour paper can also be purchased in the form of spiral-bound pads, which are convenient for outdoor sketching. They generally contain 300gsm (140lb) Not paper. SEE ALSO STRETCHING PAPER (#litres_trial_promo) WATERCOLOUR PAINTS (#litres_trial_promo) WATERCOLOUR TECHNIQUES (#litres_trial_promo) ART-MATERIALS SUPPLIERS (#litres_trial_promo) Achieving a smooth painting surface The paper is wetted and then securely taped to a board. On drying, it will contract slightly and become taut, giving a smooth surface that is less prone to cockling. With heavier papers (300gsm and over) there is less need for stretching, unless heavy, saturated washes are to be applied. Lighter papers always need stretching. Method Cut four lengths of gummed brown-paper tape 50mm (2in) longer than the paper. Do this first, to avoid panic at the crucial moment, when wet hands, crumpled tape and a rapidly curling sheet of paper could cause chaos. Immerse the paper in cold water for a few minutes (1), making sure it has absorbed water on both sides; heavier papers may take up to 20 minutes. Use a container large enough to take the sheet without being cramped. For large sheets, use a clean sink or bath. Immerse only one sheet at a time in fresh water, as each sheet will leave a residue of size in the water. Hold the paper up by one corner and shake it gently to drain the surplus water. Place the paper onto the board (2) and smooth it outwards from the centre, using your hands, to make sure that it is perfectly flat. Take a dry sponge around the edges of the paper where the gummed tape is to be placed, to remove any excess water (3). You should moisten each length of gum strip with a damp sponge immediately before use. Beginning with the long sides, stick the strips around the outer edges of the paper, half their width on the board, half on the paper (4). Leave the paper to dry flat, allowing it to dry naturally, away from direct heat. Do not attempt to use stretched paper until it is dry. Leave the gummed strips in place until the painting is completed and dry. Commercial paper stretchers For those artists who find stretching paper a time-consuming chore, the only previous alternative to this has been to use expensive heavyweight papers or boards. However, there are now various effective devices available, which are designed by watercolour painters and which will stretch lightweight papers drum-tight in minutes. Among the ingenious designs, one uses a two-piece wooden frame to hold the paper firmly in place as it dries; another employs a system of plastic gripper rods which are pushed into grooves in the edges of the board, to hold the paper. Choosing the best equipment Use only gummed brown-paper tape for stretching paper – masking tape and self-adhesive tape will not adhere to damp paper. A clean wooden drawing board is the ideal surface for stretching paper; traces of paint or ink might stain the paper. Plastic-coated boards are not suitable, because gummed tape will not stick to them. Immersion times (1) Immersing the paper (2) Smoothing the paper (3) Removing excess water (4) Sticking the gummed strip These depend on the weight and degree of surface sizing of the paper. Thin paper soaked for too long will expand greatly, and may tear as it contracts; too brief an immersion means the paper will not expand enough, and will buckle when wet paint is applied. The correct soaking time for each paper will come through trial and error, but in general lightweight papers and those not strongly sized should be soaked for 3–5 minutes; heavily sized papers may need 15–20 minutes. (If a fine layer of bubbles appears when the paper is immersed, this indicates a strongly sized paper.) Effects The subtle texture of pastel paper catches at the pastel particles to just the right degree. When the pastel stick is passed lightly over the surface, the colour of the paper shows through and gives an interesting broken-colour effect; when the pastel is pressed firmly into the tooth of the paper, solid patches of colour are obtained. Types of paper Canson Mi-Teintes A machine-made paper produced in France. A lightly sized rag paper with a neutral pH, it has a fairly soft surface, suitable for pastel, charcoal and chalk. It is available in a wide range of colours. Ingres A mould-made paper produced in Italy, Ingres is one of the most widely used papers for pastel work. It has a hard surface and a laid finish, with a neutral pH. Suitable for charcoal and chalk, it also has a wide selection of colours. Velour paper Also known as flock paper, this has a soft surface like velvet which produces a rich, matt finish more like a painting than a drawing. It is best not to blend pastel colours too vigorously on velour paper, as this may spoil the nap of the surface. Sand-grain paper This has a pronounced tooth which grips the pastel particles and there is enough resistance to the drawn line to make it very pleasant to work on. The rough surface is suited to a bold and vigorous approach. It is, however, an expensive surface for large-scale work, as it shaves off the pastel fairly rapidly. Sansfix The unique tooth of this paper, similar to that of a very fine sandpaper, is made from a thin layer of fine cork particles, which eliminates the need for using fixative. Similar in feel to Mi-Teintes paper, it has a light card backing, and is acid-free. It is ideally suited to pastel work. Charcoal paper This inexpensive paper is useful for rough pastel sketches. However, it is rather thin and fragile, and you may find its regular, linear surface texture too monotonous. Choosing a surface A pastel painting is very much a marriage of the medium and the paper. The two work side by side, creating an exciting fusion of texture and colour. When choosing a surface for pastel painting, there are three factors to be considered. Texture Texture is a vital part of pastel work, and the choice of surface can make or mar the finished picture. Smooth papers allow you to blend colours smoothly and evenly where a soft, delicate effect is required, whereas rougher papers break up the colour and provide a vigour and sparkle. Colour Pastel paper is available in a wide range of colours. In pastel painting, areas of the paper are very often left untouched, and contribute to the picture. For example, the paper can be chosen to harmonize with the subject, or it can provide a contrast. Tone The tone of the paper has considerable importance in a painting. ‘Tone’ refers to the relative lightness or darkness of the paper, regardless of its colour. In general, a light-toned paper emphasizes the dark tones and colours in a painting. For dramatic effects, use light pastels on a dark paper. Tinting papers Using a teabag There may be times when you wish to tint your paper by hand. For instance, you may find the colours of pastel papers too flat and mechanical, and prefer the more painterly look of a handtinted ground. Or you may want to work on watercolour paper because you like its texture, but white paper doesn’t show the vibrant colours of pastel to best advantage; it makes them look darker than they actually are. Methods for tinting papers Using crushed pastels Watercolour, acrylic or gouache paints can be applied with a brush, sponge or spray diffuser to leave a pale tint of colour. You can modernize an ancient Chinese method by rubbing a damp teabag across the surface of the paper; this creates a warm undertone. Another technique is to save the broken ends of pastels and crush them to a powder with a heavy object. Dip a damp rag into the powder and rub it over the paper. When the paper is dry, tilt the board and tap the surplus powder off. Using rough paper If you work in a bold, vigorous style, with thick layers of colour, choose a rough-textured paper such as sand-grain, or a rough-textured watercolour paper. The hollows in rough paper are capable of holding enough pigment for you to apply several layers of colour without the surface becoming ‘greasy’. The rough texture of the paper also contributes to the visual effect of the painting: the pigment catches on the ridges of the grain and skips the grooves, creating a sparkling, broken-colour effect. Using smooth paper Smooth papers are best suited to fine details and linear work because the shallow grain quickly fills up with pastel particles, and the surface becomes greasy and unworkable if too many layers of pastel are applied. Using mid-toned papers These are generally the most sympathetic for pastel drawings. They make it easy to judge how light or dark a particular colour should be, and provide a harmonious backdrop to most colours. Working on pastel papers Choosing and exploiting the qualities of a particular paper is one of the pleasures of working with pastels. These examples show how different textures, tones and colours interact with the pastel pigment, thereby creating a range of expressive effects. Detail on rough Mi-Teintes paper Carole Katchen African Smile Pastel on Mi-Teintes paper Detail on velour paper Andrew Hemingway Red Oilcan, Peaches, Plant Pots and Eggs Pastel on velour paper Detail on toned Ingres paper James Crittenden Through the Olives II Pastel on Ingres paper Detail on watercolour paper with coloured-acrylic tint Judy Martin Downs View Pastel on watercolour paper SEE ALSO WATERCOLOUR PAPERS (#litres_trial_promo) PASTELS (#litres_trial_promo) COLOUR HARMONY (#litres_trial_promo) (#u23b758e7-867b-59b3-bd40-a406f45033d3) Anything that makes a mark can be used as a drawing tool, but over the years the versatility of certain materials – especially pencil, pastel, charcoal and ink – has made them enduringly popular among artists of all abilities. No one drawing medium is intrinsically superior to another. One artist may enjoy the broad handling that is possible with charcoal or soft pastel, while another may prefer the control and precision of a harder point, such as pencil. The best course is to experiment with different materials and techniques until you discover which ones allow you to express your artistic vision most fully. Cartridge paper Cartridge paper is a good general-purpose drawing paper. Poor-quality paper is lightweight, with little or no sizing, and tends to yellow with age; heavier cartridge paper is more versatile and is likely to be acid-free. The surface of cartridge paper varies between brands. It is usually fairly smooth, but with a fine-grained texture. Its colour is variable, too, ranging from a bright white to a mellow cream. Bristol paper Bristol paper, or Bristol board, is made from two or more layers of paper bonded together to make a thick sheet. It has a smooth surface which is ideal for fine line drawing, and is also perfect for pen-and-ink work. Japanese papers Michael Hyam uses Japanese paper for many of his preparatory portrait studies. The thin, absorbent texture helps him to achieve great sensitivity of line and wash tone. Michael Hyam Study of Bernadette Ink on Japanese paper 25 ? 17.5cm (10 ? 7in) Specialist paper shops offer a range of Japanese handmade rice papers which are suitable for drawing, watercolour and gouache techniques. These papers are very thin and delicate, with some unusual surface patterns. Japanese papers are very absorbent; they tend to soak up ink or paint, creating hazy, soft-edged shapes of a delicate and elegant nature. Indian papers Handmade Indian papers are more robust than Japanese papers, with a surface similar to rough watercolour paper. They are inexpensive and come in a range of tints as well as white and cream. They make an excellent support for soft drawing media such as charcoal, and for wash drawings. Texture The texture, or ‘tooth’, of the paper has a direct influence on the character and appearance of the drawn marks. An uncoated, unpressed paper, such as Ingres, has plenty of natural tooth to bite and hold powdery drawing media such as charcoal, chalk and pastel. Rough textures are also suited to bold work, as they emphasize the drawn marks and become part of the drawing. For fine pencil work and pen-and-ink drawing, a smooth surface is preferred; pen nibs can snag on a rough surface and the ink will spread, preventing clean lines. Colour The choice of colour and tone can make a positive contribution to the picture when using coloured drawing materials such as pastel and coloured pencil. Toned papers provide a good middle ground from which to work up to the lights and down to the darks. Sketchbooks Naomi Russell Sketchbook Ink on paper 15 ? 10cm (6 ? 4in) Sketchbooks with a spiral binding can be held in one hand while drawing; some have tear-off, perforated sheets, while others come in book form so you can work right across the spread. A small sketchbook, about 15 ? 10cm (6 ? 4in), fits conveniently into a pocket and can be taken out when inspiration strikes. A larger book, though bulkier, offers more scope for large-scale studies, such as landscapes. Making paper by hand Handmade papers are produced by pulping cotton fibres and sizing agents in a vat of water. The paper-maker places a wooden frame, or deckle, over a flat screen made of wire mesh; this is lowered into the pulp and lifted out horizontally. Water drains out through the holes in the wire screen, leaving the fibres in the pulp deposited as a flat sheet on the mesh surface. The deckle is then removed; fibres trapped under the frame produce the ‘deckle edge’, a feature of most handmade paper. Each wet sheet is transferred onto a piece of woollen felt, and when a number of sheets have been sandwiched into a ‘post’ they are pressed to remove excess water. The sheets are then laid out on screens to dry (some makers use the traditional method of drying over ropes). This is known as loft drying, and results in paper with better dimensional stability than machine-made papers because humidity is released at a slower rate. Weight Heavy papers made of 100 per cent cotton are preferred for permanent work, as they are sturdy and can take a lot of working and erasing without damage. They are also less prone to wrinkling when using ink and watercolour washes. Cheaper woodpulp and lightweight papers, some of which are now made from eco-friendly, recycled paper, are fine for sketches and practice work. Supports and media These drawings on different types of paper demonstrate the importance of the support. Kay Gallwey Mr Bill Charcoal, chalk and wash on paper 12.5 ? 20cm (5 ? 8in) In Kay Gallwey’s lively sketch, beige Ingres paper provides a soft mid-tone which shows through the drawn marks, tying them together. Naomi Russell Little Red Rooster Oil pastel and gold ink on tissue paper 39 ? 49cm (15? ? 19?in) Naomi Russell used coloured tissue paper, crumpled and then smoothed out, for this charming study. Sarah Donaldson Still Life with Pumpkins Watercolour on Indian paper 40 ? 28.5cm (16 ? 11?in) The rough surface of handmade Indian paper imparts an attractive texture to watercolour washes in Sarah Donaldson’s still life. SEE ALSO WATERCOLOUR PAPERS (#litres_trial_promo) DRAWING & OBSERVATION (#litres_trial_promo) SKETCHING (#litres_trial_promo) How pencils are made In graphite, or ‘lead’ pencils, natural graphite is reduced to a powder and blended with clay in exact proportions, then kneaded into a stiff paste. To make the leads, the paste is compressed and extruded into thin strips, which are dried before being fired in a kiln. After firing, the leads are impregnated with waxes to ensure that they draw smoothly. They are then encased in shafts of cedarwood which are finished with one or more coats of paint. Graphite pencils Drawing pencils come in a range of grades, from ‘H’ for hard to ‘B’ for soft. The hardness of the lead is determined by the relative proportions of graphite and clay used: the more graphite, the softer the pencil. Typically, hard pencils range from 9H (the hardest) to H, and soft pencils range from 9B (the softest) to B. Grades HB and F are midway between the two. A very soft lead will produce rich, black marks, and is an excellent choice for rapid sketches and expressive line-and-tone drawings, especially on textured paper. Hard leads make grey, rather than black marks. They are suitable for precise lines and details because they can be sharpened to a fine point. Although a single pencil of grade HB or 2B gives you considerable scope for expression, many artists use several grades of pencil in one piece of work, creating a rich interplay of line and tone. Graphite sticks These are made of high-grade compressed and bonded graphite formed into thick, chunky sticks. They glide smoothly across the surface of the paper, lending themselves to bold and expressive drawing, and to large-scale work. The marks can be varied by using the point, the flattened edge of the point, or the length of the stick. Linear marks Valerie Wiffen Portrait I Graphite pencil on paper 12.5 ? 12.5cm (5 ? 5in) The weight, quality and nuance of a pencil line can be varied and controlled by the grade of pencil chosen, its sharpness, the degree of pressure applied, and the texture of the paper surface. A soft graphite lead gives considerable control over the tone and thickness of a line, which may be graded to describe the contours of a form and the play of light. Shading Valerie Wiffen Portrait II Graphite pencil on paper 12.5 ? 12.5cm (5 ? 5in) Continuous gradations of tone can be created by shading with soft pencils. These areas are first drawn in broadly, using the edge of the lead, working from the lightest to the darkest tones or vice versa. The marks are then carefully blended together using a paper stump, as here, the fingers, or an eraser. Hatching and crosshatching Valerie Wiffen Model and artist Graphite pencil on paper 21 ? 14.5cm (8? ? 5?in) Areas of tone can be built up with hatching – roughly parallel lines drawn close together. These can be straight and mechanical or free and sketchy. Altering the direction of the lines describes shape and form. In crosshatching, lines are crisscrossed on top of one another to create a fine mesh of tone. The lines may run in any direction: vertical, horizontal and diagonal. The density of tone can be varied, as is demonstrated right: the closer the lines, the blacker the pencil used, and the more pressure applied, the deeper the tone. Build up hatched and crosshatched lines gradually; too much deepening of tone early on can make the finished drawing dark and heavy. Drawing with an eraser Pauline Jackson Sneakers Graphite pencil on paper 34 ? 25cm (13? ? 10in) Erasers can also be used as drawing instruments. In this lively study, line and areas of tone were laid on the paper with a soft pencil, then drawn into and modified with a kneaded putty eraser. This is a form of ‘negative’ drawing, in which the image emerges gradually from dark to light. SEE ALSO SUPPORTS (#u5b5d412a-94b8-5b1f-a655-298c83d3f160) ACCESSORIES (#litres_trial_promo) Choice and variety Of late, there has been an enormous increase in the variety of coloured pencils available on the market. Not only has the range of colours been vastly expanded, but the colours themselves are now much more consistently lightfast than previously. You can also obtain watercolour pencils which allow you to dissolve or partially dissolve the colours on the paper with water. Clean, quick and portable, coloured pencils are very useful sketching and drawing tools. They allow you to work with the accuracy of pencil while involving colour; they are soft enough to allow delicate shading, and they can be sharpened to a point for controlled lines. Buying coloured pencils Coloured pencils are available individually or in sumptuous-looking sets with dozens of colours. Brands vary considerably in the range of available tones and in the quality and proportion of pigments, binders, clays and waxes they contain. Some brands have hard, waxy ‘leads’ that can be sharpened to a long, fine point; others are soft and crumbly, producing a broader, more grainy mark. Fine or broad Most pencils have a colour core 3.5mm ( / in) in diameter, which is particularly suitable for finely detailed drawings. Some ranges also carry pencils with a 4mm ( / in) diameter colour strip, which allows for broad strokes and strong lines. As with ordinary lead pencils, they can be obtained in round or hexagonal wooden shafts. Buy the best For fine art work, look for the best quality pencils. They should have strong, lightfast and rich colours that come out uniformly and vividly, with no feeling of grittiness. Optical colour mixing You can use hatching and crosshatching techniques to create colours and tones. Just lay lines of different colours side-by-side, or overlay lines at right angles to one another to create the illusion of a third colour. Toothed paper Coloured pencil drawings are characterized by a certain delicacy, softness and clarity, due to the effect of the grain of the paper. Unless you press hard with the pencil, the pigment particles catch only on the raised tooth of the paper, leaving the indents untouched; these tiny flecks of white paper reflect light, and this lends translucency to the colours. Light hatching Coloured pencils produce a translucent effect that allows you to layer coloured marks to create subtle tones and hues. Here, the figure’s solidity is achieved through lightly hatched lines. The illumination is suggested by highlights, using the white paper. Making the paper work Sarah Donaldson Seated Nude Coloured pencil on paper 42 ? 30cm (16? ? 12in) As with watercolours, the secret is to make the white of the paper work for you. Rather than applying dense layers of colour – which quickly makes the surface greasy and unworkable, preventing any further build-up of colour – deepen the colour by degrees, allowing plenty of white paper to show through the lines. Building up colour In many ways, coloured pencils work like watercolours. When they are used on white paper, the marks they make are transparent or semi-transparent, which means you can put down one colour on top of another, building up hues, tones and intensities until you achieve the result you want. Maintaining the best point Using the natural backwards-and-forwards motion of the arm, work speedily, fractionally rotating the shaft of the pencil in your fingers from time to time, to find the best shading edge and to make the tip flatter or sharper as required. SEE ALSO SUPPORTS (#u5b5d412a-94b8-5b1f-a655-298c83d3f160) PENCILS (#litres_trial_promo) WATER-SOLUBLE PENCILS (#litres_trial_promo) MIXING COLOURS (#litres_trial_promo) Using water-soluble pencils Colour applied dry Dissolved with wet watercolour brush Dissolved with wet sponge Dissolved with wet finger Dry point on wet paper Point dipped in water, on dry paper Combined with other materials You can apply the colour dry, as you would with an ordinary coloured pencil, and you can also use a wet watercolour brush, a wet sponge, or even a wet finger, to loosen the pigment particles and create a subtle watercolour effect. When the washes have dried, you can then add further colour and linear detail, using the pencils dry. If you dampen the paper first, the marks made by the pencil will bleed slightly and produce broad, soft lines. This facility for producing tightly controlled work and loose washes makes water-soluble pencils a flexible medium, and they are very appropriate for rendering natural subjects. They are often used in combination with watercolours, felt-tipped pens, pencil or pen and ink. Techniques Apply the colours with light, hatched strokes, then use a soft brush, rinsed regularly in clean water, to gently blend the strokes and produce a smooth texture. This can take a little practice, as too much water will flood the paint surface and make it blotchy, while insufficient water will prevent the colours from blending well; the ideal result resembles a watercolour wash. Heavy pencil strokes will persist and show through the wash. Textures Interesting textures can be created by building up the picture with multiple layers of dry pigment and water-dissolved colour. When adding dry colour over a dissolved base, however, the paper must first be completely dry; if it is still damp, it will moisten the pencil point and produce a blurred line, and the paper may even tear. Coloured and water-soluble pencils These pencils offer a surprisingly varied range of techniques and effects. Anna Wood Tomatoes Water-soluble pencil on paper 50 ? 35cm (20 ? 14in) Anna Wood uses water-soluble crayons – which are thicker and juicier than pencils – which suit her spontaneous way of working. Suggestions of form, texture and space emerge from the accidental marks left as the colour washes spread and dry. David Suff The History Garden (Twa Corbies) Coloured pencil on paper 90 ? 90cm (36 ? 36in) The astonishing detail and beautiful texture in David Suff’s drawing below are built up painstakingly with tiny strokes, applied layer on layer. Michael Stiff Detail, Greek-Thomson Church, Glasgow Coloured pencil and pastel on paper 25 ? 20cm (10 ? 8in) Michael Stiff’s work above left has a similar sense of heightened reality. He blends pastel dust into a smooth layer to produce the basic tonal areas, over which he applies finely hatched strokes of coloured pencil. SEE ALSO COLOURED PENCILS (#litres_trial_promo) WATERCOLOUR TECHNIQUES (#litres_trial_promo) A user-friendly medium Charcoal is an excellent medium for beginners, as it encourages the student to treat subjects in broad terms and not become lost in detail. At the same time it is a forgiving medium, which is very easy to erase and correct by rubbing marks off with a finger or a wad of tissue. Charcoal sticks Stick charcoal is made from vine, beech or willow twigs charred at high temperatures in airtight kilns. Willow is the commonest type; vine and beech charcoal are more expensive, but make a richer mark. Lengths up to 15cm (6in) are available in boxes, and vary in thicknesses and degrees of hardness. Soft charcoal is more powdery and adheres less easily to the paper than hard charcoal, so it is better suited to blending and smudging techniques and creating broad tonal areas. The harder type of charcoal is more appropriate for detailed, linear work, as it does not smudge so readily. The only drawback with stick charcoal is that it is very brittle and fragile, and tends to snap when used vigorously. Compressed charcoal Vine, beech and willow charcoal This is made out of powder ground from charcoal, mixed with a binder and pressed into short, thick sticks. Compressed charcoal is stronger than stick charcoal and does not break so easily. It produces dense, velvety blacks, but is less easy to dust off than natural charcoal. Charcoal pencils These pencils are made from thin sticks of compressed charcoal encased in wood. They are cleaner to handle and easier to control than stick charcoal, and have a slightly harder texture. Only the point can be used, so they cannot produce a broad side-stroke, but they make firm lines and strokes. Charcoal pencils come in hard, medium and soft grades; the tip can be sharpened, like graphite pencils. Versatility Charcoal is a wonderfully liberating medium, so immediate and responsive in use that it is almost like an extension of the artist’s fingers. Simply by twisting and varying the pressure on the stick, you can make fluid lines that vary from soft and tentative to bold and vigorous. Rich tonal effects, ranging from deep blacks to misty greys, are achieved by smudging and blending charcoal lines with the fingers or with a paper stump, and highlights can be picked out with a kneaded-putty eraser. Detailed work Easily sharpened, pencils are perhaps the best form of charcoal for doing detailed drawing. Working at a distance Charcoal works well for large-scale drawings executed at the easel. You need to stand well back from the easel, so that your drawing arm is not cramped and you can view the drawing as a whole through each stage of progress. Attaching charcoal to a cane Working at a distance is made easier by securing the charcoal stick to the end of a cane – a method used by Renaissance painters when drawing images for frescoes. Cut a piece of cane to the required length. At one end of the cane make two 25mm (1 in) cuts at right angles. Push the charcoal firmly into the end, leaving a reasonable length protruding, and then secure with tape wound round the cane. Tonal effects The most effective method of achieving these is by smudging and blending charcoal lines with fingers or with a paper stump. Rosemary Young Reclining Nude Charcoal on paper 35 ? 45cm (14 ? 18in) Charcoal is a painterly medium, allowing a rich patina of marks to be built up with line and tone. Both of these artists’ drawings evolve gradually, the final image being enriched by the previous alterations. Rosemary Young works at an easel, using charcoal attached to a length of cane to allow her greater mobility. Highlights These can be picked out with a kneaded putty eraser. Exploiting the grain of the paper One of the most interesting of charcoal’s characteristics is that it is sympathetic to the texture and grain of the paper, allowing it to show through and contribute to the surface interest of the drawing. This is especially the case when the charcoal stick is used on its side and swept lightly over the surface. Fixing charcoal Sarah Cawkwell Hair Piece Charcoal on paper 147.5 ? 118.7cm (59 ? 47?in) The soft nature of charcoal makes it messy to handle, and the strokes may be accidentally smeared with the heel of the hand. Keep a damp rag handy, and wipe your fingertips regularly to avoid leaving prints on the paper. It is advisable to spray finished charcoal drawings fairly liberally with fixative to protect them from smudging. SEE ALSO ACCESSORIES (#litres_trial_promo) Tints and shades Pastels are made in a wide range of tints and shades, derived from a selection of full-strength pigment colours. The tints are achieved by adding more base and white pigment to the original colour, and by repeating this process to produce a series of increasingly lighter shades. The tonal range of each pastel colour is usually indicated by a system of numbering which corresponds to the various strengths of each colour; for example, in some ranges burnt umber has No. 1 against its lightest shade, and No. 8 against its darkest. This system of numbering, however, is not standardized from one manufacturer to another, so it is worth checking catalogues and colour charts. Soft pastels Soft pastels are the most widely used of the various pastel types, because they produce the wonderful velvety bloom which is one of the main attractions of pastel art. They contain proportionally more pigment and less binder, so the colours are rich and vibrant. The smooth, thick quality of soft pastels produces rich, painterly effects. They are easy to apply, requiring little pressure to make a mark, and can be smudged and blended with a finger, a rag or a paper stump. The only drawback of soft pastels is their fragility. Because they contain little binding agent they are apt to crumble and break easily, and they are more prone to smudging than other types of pastels. A light spray with fixative after each stage of the work will help to prevent such smudging. Hard pastels These contain less pigment and more binder than the soft type of pastels, so although the colours are not as brilliant, they do have a firmer consistency. Hard pastels can be sharpened to a point with a blade and used to produce crisp lines and details. They do not crumble and break as easily as soft pastels, nor do they clog the tooth of the paper; they are often used in the preliminary stages of a painting, to outline the composition, or to add details and accents in the latter stages, sometimes in combination with other drawing and painting media. Pastel pencils Thin pastel sticks are available encased in wooden shafts, like pencils. Pastel pencils are clean to use, do not break or crumble like traditional pastels, and give greater control of handling. They are suitable for both line sketches and detailed or small-scale work, and can be used in conjunction with hard and soft pastels. Let the buyer beware Since the degree of softness varies noticeably from one brand of soft pastel to another, you should try out individual sticks from different manufacturers until you find the one that suits you best. Only then buy a full range. Permanence Reputable manufacturers provide the names of lightfast pigments, such as burnt umber, that are used in pastels. Pastels in cheaper ranges often are given romantically descriptive names which, however, give no indication of the nature or permanence of the pigment. Versatility Working with the tip Working with the side Pastels are both a painting and a drawing medium. Working with the side of the crayon creates broad, painterly strokes that can be blended and smudged or built up in thickly impasted layers, with the solid, buttery appearance of an oil painting. Working with the tip of the crayon, you can make thin lines and crisp marks that create a very different feel. Blending Blending with a fingertip One of the attractions of a powdery medium such as pastel is that it is easily blended to create soft, velvety tones and subtle gradations from dark to light. Blending has many uses – softening fine lines and details, suggesting smooth textures, modelling form with degrees of light and shade, lightening tones, and tying shapes together. To create an area of blended tone, either apply lightly scribbled strokes with the point of the stick, or use the side of the stick to make a broad mark, but do not press too hard – if the mark is too ingrained it will be difficult to blend. Then lightly rub the surface with the tip of your finger or a rag, tissue or paper stump, to blend the marks together and create an even tone. Repeat the process if a darker tone is required. Line and tone Lines over soft blending You can use blended tones alone, or mix blended and linear techniques to add variety and texture. Another approach is to create an area of soft blending and then overlay it with linear strokes. Here, the blended tones act somewhat like an underpainting, adding extra depth and subtlety to the image, while the strokes tie the image together. Scumbling Scumbling Scumbling modifies the colour of a tinted paper or a layer of pastel by applying a thin, semi-opaque layer of another colour over it. Loose, circular strokes are applied with the side of the pastel stick to create a thin veil of colour which does not entirely obliterate the one underneath. Scumbling not only creates subtle colour effects, but it also gives a very attractive surface texture. Use it to give depth and luminosity to your colours, and to soften and unify different areas of the drawing. James Crittenden Windy Day Pastel on paper 65 ? 75cm (26 ? 30in) Jackie Simmonds The Glass Table Pastel on paper 45 ? 60cm (18 ? 24in) Among the many ways of applying pastel, the ‘painting’ and ‘drawing’ disciplines can be used alongside each other to create a breathtaking range of effects. These two pictures show some of the varied textures that can be produced, from broken, grainy strokes to delicate ‘washes’. SEE ALSO SUPPORTS (#u5b5d412a-94b8-5b1f-a655-298c83d3f160) ACCESSORIES (#litres_trial_promo) Using oil pastels Working with a robust medium such as oil pastels will encourage a bold and direct approach which is of enormous benefit in developing confidence in your drawing and using colours. In fact, oil pastels are not ideally suited to small-scale, detailed work; the sticks are too chunky for this, and fine blending is not possible. It is far better practice to exploit the tactile qualities of the medium and to work on a large scale, using various textural strokes and building up a rich patina of waxy colour. As with the other types of pastels and crayons, optical colour mixtures can be created by techniques such as hatching, crosshatching or gentle shading with superimposed colours. Blending and mixing Dry oil pastel on blended pastel Because of their waxy texture, only a minimal amount of blending is possible with oil pastels. The colours can, however, be applied to the support and then spread and blended with a brush, rag or tissue which has been dipped in white (mineral) spirit or turpentine. As the pastel mixes with the turpentine it dissolves and takes on the quality of thinned oil paint, and the colours become richer and darker. When they are dry, you can work over the painted’ areas with linear strokes of dry oil pastel to add textural variety. Finger blending Blended with a wet finger The drawn surface can be smoothed and blended with a wet finger. Because oil and water are incompatible, a dampened finger will not pick up the colour from the paper but will just smooth and blend the surface of the oil pastel. Sgraffito Scratched back or sgraffito A layer of solid colour can be built up, and the waxy surface scratched into with a sharp tool to create lively patterns and textures – a technique known as sgraffito. Further interest is added by applying one colour over another and then scratching back through the top layer to reveal the colour below. Wax resist Wax resist Blended oil pastel Oil pastel can be used with watercolour paint to build up a lively surface or to suggest natural textures. The paint adheres to the paper but is resisted by the waxy pastel marks, and results in a random, mottled effect. A more pronounced pattern can be achieved by working on rough-surfaced paper. Diluents for oil pastels Turpentine and white (mineral) spirit dissolve oil pastel and can be used for blending colours and obtaining painterly surface effects. Your initial drawing can be modified using a brush which has been dipped in a diluent and worked over the surface. Simon Jennings Upstream Greenwich Oil pastel and graphite pencil on paper 41 ? 57.5cm (16? ? 23in) Oil pastels work particularly well in combination with other media. Here, the artist emphasized the sky and the dramatic sweep of the river with lines and flecks of oil pastel, which were then blended with turpentine. The details of the buildings in the foreground were added with graphite pencil, which glides over an oil pastel ground. Simon Jennings Portrait of a Tulip Oil pastel on paper 58.7 ? 41cm (23? x16?in) A painterly surface was built up in the image above by using oil painting techniques, which included blending into thick layers of colour, scraping back with a knife, blending and smudging with fingers and scratching in lines with a pointed paintbrush handle. The oil-paint shine that resulted can be seen in the surface reflection. SEE ALSO MIXING COLOURS (#litres_trial_promo) Types and colours Cont? crayons are similar in effect to charcoal, but because they are harder they can be used for rendering fine lines as well as broad tonal areas. Although cont? crayons are now available in a wide range of colours, many artists still favour the restrained harmony of the traditional combination of black, white, grey and earth colours – sepia, sanguine (terracotta red) and bistre (cool brown). These colours impart a unique warmth and softness to a drawing, and are particularly appropriate to portraits and nude figure studies. The traditional colours also lend to drawings an antique look, reminiscent of the chalk drawings of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Rubens or Claude. Fine and broad strokes Modern, pencil-form colours As with pastels, the most practical method of using cont? crayons is to snap off small pieces about 25mm (1in) long. This way, you can rapidly block in tonal areas with the side of the stick and use a sharp corner at the end for drawing expressive lines. Blending cont? Snap off small pieces Cont? is soft enough to blend colours by rubbing them together with a finger, a soft rag or a paper stump. However, because they are less powdery than chalk and charcoal, cont? colours can be mixed by laying one colour over another, so that the colours beneath show through. Cont? work Blending by laying and rubbing colours Like pastels, cont? crayons are used to their best advantage on tinted paper with a textured surface, which brings out the distinctive qualities of the marks. John Raynes Portrait of a Girl Coloured and white cont? crayon on tinted paper 51 ? 34cm (20? ? 13?in) John Raynes uses white cont? skilfully to capture crisp highlights on his model’s white shirt. Victor Ambrus Dorothy’s Dog Lalla Black cont? crayon, on paper 76 ? 56.5cm (30 ? 22?in) Victor Ambrus Morag Coloured cont? crayon on paper 56.5 ? 76cm (22? ? 30in) The two drawings by Victor Ambrus show the surprising range of textures that can be achieved by using only coloured or black crayons on a cream coloured paper. SEE ALSO SUPPORTS (#u5b5d412a-94b8-5b1f-a655-298c83d3f160) PASTELS (#litres_trial_promo) ACCESSORIES (#litres_trial_promo) Dip pens Reed, quill and metal pens (metal nibs set into holders) are all classified as dip pens, as they are loaded by being dip ped directly into the ink. The nib retains a small amount of ink, which is held in place by its own surface tension. Dip pens produce very expressive lines which swell and taper according to the amount of pressure applied to the pen. Reservoir pens Reservoir pens carry ink in a special holder or cartridge and need only to be refilled from time to time, but in general their nibs are less flexible than those of dip pens. Nibs The nib itself is known as the ‘pen’, and the main shaft is the ‘penholder’. A great variety of nib shapes and sizes is readily available. Each nib makes a different range of marks, and the more flexible the nib, the more varied the thickness of line it makes. Since they are so inexpensive, it is worth trying several before buying. Metal pens Dip pens with metal nibs have long been the traditional tool of pen-and-ink artists and illustrators. Inexpensive and versatile, these pens consist of a holder and an interchangeable steel nib. Mapping pens Mapping pens have a very fine, straight point for detailed drawings. Because the metal nibs are flexible, you can vary the thickness of line to a considerable degree. Crow-quill pens Crow-quill pens (a type of mapping pen) also have a delicate point for producing detailed work, but can be less flexible than mapping pens. Bamboo and reed pens Bamboo and reed pens may have declined in popularity since the availability of more sophisticated pens, but many artists still use them. Their blunt, coarse and slightly irregular strokes make them ideal for bold line drawings, and their appeal often lies in the sheer pleasure that can be derived from drawing with such a ‘primitive’ instrument. Ink for metal pens Metal pens can be used with any type of ink – waterproof or water-soluble – because there is no mechanism to clog up. However, the nibs should be cleaned regularly under running water to prevent the ink from caking. Making a quill pen Use a stout, round feather, preferably goose. Trim the barbs back (1), to make the feather easier to hold. Shape the tip of the quill with a sharp knife. Make a curved, diagonal cut (2), then remove the keratin filling from the quill. Make a single cut, running up from the tip, to make a channel for ink (3). Quill pens Quill pens are made from the wing feathers of birds such as geese, turkeys or swans. They are often an ideal choice if you want to make fine, responsive lines. However, the nib is fragile, so they are best suited to small sketches and detailed drawings. Technical pens Originally designed for use by professional illustrators and designers, technical pens deliver ink down a narrow tube instead of a nib. This produces a very even line of a specific and unvarying width, regardless of the direction in which the pen is moved. The fine, fragile strokes made by technical pens are most appropriate for a controlled, graphic style of drawing. Like fountain pens, technical pens are easily portable and contain their own supply of ink. But, unlike fountain pens, the ink flow is fine and even, and lasts much longer, so you no longer have to carry bottles of ink which can break, leak or spill. The narrow tubular nibs for technical pens, available in an increasing variety of point sizes, are interchangeable within each range, and can be quickly switched. Nib units for technical pens For most drawings, you will need only one holder and several nib units in a range of different sizes. Ink for technical pens Technical pens should only be used with inks designed for them. These are usually lightfast, but are not waterproof. The ink supply is held in a reservoir and can be topped up with a dropper, or from a purpose-made filler bottle. The nibs should not be left uncovered, as the ink will dry in its channel, and they must be cleaned regularly with warm water. If the pens are not to be used for some time, they should be emptied and cleaned. Fountain pens Fountain pens feel much smoother to draw with than dip pens, and because they produce a steady flow of ink to the nib, they don’t need to be dipped frequently. This makes them useful for impromptu sketching. However, since fountain-pen nibs have little flexibility, it is not very easy to vary the thickness of your lines. The nib range is also quite limited. Ink for fountain pens To prevent them clogging, most fountain pens require non-waterproof ink, drawn into the barrel by suction through the nib. An exception to this rule is Indian ink pens, which are made specially for use with this type of ink and have a choice of two sketching nibs, graded ‘ordinary’ and ‘bold’. Sketching pens Also known as ‘art pens’, these combine the expressive qualities of a dip pen with the convenience of a reservoir pen. In appearance they resemble an ordinary fountain pen, but they have flexible nibs designed specially for drawing, which deliver ink smoothly to the paper via a pre-filled ink cartridge. Filler adaptors Coloured sketching pen cartridges ‘Art pens’also have a fillerad aptor which enables you to fill them with a range of liquid colours. Waterproof coloured inks Waterproof coloured inks, also called artists’ drawing inks, come in a range of about 20 colours. Waterproof inks are essential if you intend to apply a wash or tint on top of a line drawing, otherwise the linework will run. These inks are denser than non-waterproof varieties, drying to a slightly glossy finish that gives the work a precise, painted quality Unfortunately, the shellac that is added to the ink to make it waterproof also makes it clog up easily, so be sure to clean brushes and pens thoroughly after use. Never use waterproof ink in fountain pens or technical pens. Non-waterproof coloured inks These contain no shellac, and they are primarily used for laying washes over waterproof-ink drawings. They are fine for line drawings, too, as long as you don’t overlay them with washes. Non-waterproof inks sink into the paper more than waterproof types, and they dry to a matt finish. Soluble inks If you want the flexibility to be able to dissolve and blend lines, you should choose a soluble ink such as Chinese ink (see here (#ulink_dd6a82a1-7223-5931-8575-e867a51e4776)), which is also more delicate than Indian ink. Linework Pen-and-ink drawings are usually composed of lines; hatching, crosshatching, stippling, dots and dashes, spattering and scribbling are just some of the techniques that can be employed to convey form and volume, texture, light and shade. First strokes Do not begin pen-and-ink work until you have tried drawing and practising movement and line with a pen or a brush. Work on a smooth paper, and learn to use a minimum of pressure to get an even flow of ink from the nib on to the paper. If you are practising with a dip pen, learn to judge when the ink will run out, so that you are not in the middle of a long unbroken line when it happens. Spontaneity Leslie Harris (1906–89) Preparatory Studies Ink and wash on paper Various dimensions It is a great advantage to make a very light preliminary design with a soft pencil if you want an accurate pen-and-ink drawing, rather than a quick sketch. But once the technique of pen-and-ink drawing becomes more familiar, spontaneous free-flowing lines and observations translated instantly onto paper will often make a far more exciting ink drawing than one which is premeditated. An ink drawing must be completely dry before preliminary pencil lines are erased or any washes added. Drying time is at least 12 hours, and even longer for a thick layer of ink. Pen-and-ink work must be positive to look successful: once an ink mark has been made on paper, it is very difficult (and sometimes impossible) to erase, so there is no room for hesitation. Ideally, you need to have had enough drawing practice to know exactly what you want to put down before you start. Pen drawing Edmund J. Sullivan (1869–1933) Bearded Man Pen and ink on paper 15 ? 12.5cm (6 ? 5in) The illustrator Edmund J. Sullivan was regarded by his contemporaries as one of the finest draughtsmen of his day. This sketch displays great control of line and tone, allied to a remarkable sensitivity to the subject. It is a triumph of penmanship, all too rarely found today. Using the techniques mentioned earlier, you can create areas of tone, volume, texture and the illusion of light and shade with just pen and ink. Increase your options by adding washes of ink or watercolour – an exciting fusion of drawing and painting which allows you to build up experience of both disciplines. Line and wash Richard Bell Cat Sketches Sketching pen and water-soluble pencil on paper Various dimensions Line-and-wash drawings are highly expressive, suggesting more than is actually revealed. The secret is to work rapidly and intuitively, allowing the washes to flow over the ‘boundaries’ of the drawn lines and not be constricted by them. The combination of crisp, finely drawn lines and fluid washes has great visual appeal, capturing the essence of the subject with economy and restraint. Line and wash also helps to improve your drawing skills because it forces you to be selective and to develop a direct, fluid approach to your work. Line-and-wash methods Hil Scott Squatting Nude Pen, brush and ink on paper 43 ? 33cm (17 ? 13in) In this vigorous line-and-wash study, Hil Scott combines calligraphic lines, drawn with a reed pen, with fluid tonal washes of Chinese brush and ink. With her sureness of touch she is able to convey a wealth of information – form and modelling, gesture and mood – with breathtaking simplicity and confidence. The traditional method is to start with a pen drawing, leave it to dry and then lay in light, fluid washes of ink or watercolour on top. Alternatively, washes can be applied first to establish the main tones, with the ink lines drawn on top when the washes have dried. The most integrated method is to develop both line and tone together, so that they emerge as an organic whole. You might begin with a skeleton of lines, add some light tones, then some bolder lines and stronger tones, and so on until the drawing is complete. Brush drawing Brushes tend to be overlooked as instruments for drawing, as they are usually associated with painting techniques. Yet many great artists of the past – Rembrandt, Goya and Claude among them – produced some of their finest drawings with brush and ink. Gordon Hales On the Estuary Brush and ink on watercolour board 15 ? 22cm (6 ? 9in) Speed and fast attack are both vital in capturing the telling gestures of a moving subject. Gordon Hales distilled the essentials of the scene above with his confident brushwork, using dilutions of ink to convey light and movement. Richard Bell sketched his subject with an expressive bamboo pen outline, filled in with a dense black mass of ink. Diluting coloured inks Coloured inks may be diluted with distilled water, not only to improve their flow, but also to produce a range of lighter tones. The inks can also be mixed with each other, but it is advisable to stick to the range of a single manufacturer, because brands of ink vary in consistency and in the surface finish they produce when dry. Pigment in ink settles at the bottom of a jar if left unused for some time, so the jar should be shaken before use. Oriental inks Chinese and Japanese inks come in solid-stick form and are usually supplied with an ink stone. The ink stick is rubbed down on the stone, with a little water being added until it is the desired consistency. Restoring flow If ink evaporates slightly while it is uncorked during a day’s work, the colour becomes deeper and the ink thicker. Adding a little distilled water will thin it and restore an even flow. Permanence of inks Only black and white inks are permanent. Coloured inks consist of soluble dyes rather than pigments, and are not lightfast. To minimize fading, always protect your finished drawings from prolonged exposure to light. Richard Bell Carrion Crows Pen and ink on paper Various dimensions Soft brushes The brush is an incredibly flexible drawing tool. A sable brush with a good point can, in a single stroke, convey line, rhythm, and even the play of light on a subject. It can change direction easily, twisting and rounding corners where a pen or pencil might falter. Sable and other soft-hair brushes are suitable for ink drawing; experiment with various types of brush on both smooth and textured papers, and compare the different marks they make. Chinese brushes Chinese bamboo-handle brushes, which were originally designed as a writing tool, are versatile, inexpensive and extremely expressive. The belly holds a lot of ink, and comes to a fine point for drawing rhythmic, flowing lines. SEE ALSO DRAWING PAPERS (#litres_trial_promo) WATERCOLOUR BRUSHES (#litres_trial_promo) WATERCOLOUR WASHES (#litres_trial_promo) Versatility Markers are ideal for on-the-spot sketching, giving a rapid impression of form, colour and atmosphere. The large range of markers and fibre-tip pens available makes them extremely useful for rendering both free, spontaneous sketches and sophisticated, detailed drawings. Coloured markers are especially convenient for outdoor sketching, because the colours are consistent and ready to use, and dry almost instantly. Colour permanence Markers come in many colours, with intensity and permanence varying according to brand. Since marker colours consist of dyes and not pigments, they tend to fade in time or when exposed to strong sunlight. This doesn’t matter for rough sketches, but for permanent artwork, make sure you buy a lightfast brand. Gigol Atler Sketchbooks Various markers on paper 15 ? 10cm (6 ? 4in) Water, spirits and alcohol Solvent-based waterproof markers Water-based soluble markers Ordinary paper Bleed-proof paper Some markers contain water-based ink and are water-soluble; others contain spirit- or alcohol-based inks and are waterproof when dry. If you want to overlay colours, choose solvent-based markers, which are easily distinguished from water-based markers by their smell (alcohol-based ink has less odour than spirits). On a sketch pad, the colours may bleed through onto the next page, but you can buy marker pads in which the paper is formulated to resist colour bleeding. Marker tips Fibre-tip markers are fairly firm and smooth-flowing, and come with tips of all shapes and in most sizes. Plastic-tip markers are hard and durable. Their tips make the finest lines. Brush pens have resin tips. They are quite flexible and ideal for sketches and colour washes. Roller pens are extremely tough, keeping their shape well. They produce a smooth, fine line. These range from soft felt to hard tung sten car bide. Softer tips make smoother lines; hard ones keep their shape longer. Tip shapes Wedge-shape tips cover solid areas well. Drawing with the thin edge will produce fairly fine lines. Bullet-shape tips are appropriate for bold strokes and solid areas, as well as dots suitable for stippling. Fine-point tips are similar to technical pens, in that they produce even, fine lines. Coloured-marker tips vary from broad wedges to fine points. Erasers Plastic or putty erasers are best, as India rubber tends to smear and can damage the paper surface. Putty erasers are very malleable; they can be broken off into smaller pieces and rolled to a point to reach details. You can also press the putty eraser onto the paper and lift off unwanted marks by pulling it away. Use it on soft graphite, charcoal or pastel drawings, both to erase and to create highlights. Paper stumps Paper stumps, also called torchons, are used for blending or shading charcoal, pastel or soft-graphite drawings. They are made of tightly rolled paper, with tapered ends for working on large areas, or a sharp point for small details. Knives and sharpeners You will need a sharp craft knife or penknife for sharpening pencils and cutting paper. Knives or other blades are also very useful for sgraffito work – scratching lines into an oil pastel drawing, for example, to create interesting textures. Drawing board You will need a firm support for drawing on sheets of loose paper. Drawing boards are available from art shops, but it is far less costly to get a good piece of smooth board, such as MDF, from a timber yard. If the board feels too hard, place a few extra sheets of paper under the top one to create a more yielding surface. Fixative Blowing fixative through an atomizer The best way to preserve drawings is to spray them with fixative, which binds the particles of pigment to the surface of the paper. Fixative is available in aerosol-spray form or mouth-type atomizers. Aerosol sprays give an even coat, and are the most convenient to use when covering a large area. An atomizer is a metal diffuser with a plastic mouthpiece, which is stood in a bottle of fixative. Blowing through the atomizer will distribute a fine spray of fixative onto the drawing. Atomizers are ideal for spraying small areas, but it takes practice to get accustomed to using them, and they also need regular cleaning to prevent clogging. Sharpening pencils Pencil sharpeners are very convenient, but using a craft knife or scalpel will produce a longer, tapering cone that exposes enough lead for drawing broadly with the side. Sharpening with sandpaper Sandpaper blocks, which consist of small, tear-off sheets of sandpaper stapled together, are very handy for putting fine points on graphite sticks, pastels, crayons and lengths of charcoal. SEE ALSO DRAWING PAPERS (#litres_trial_promo) PENCILS (#litres_trial_promo) CHARCOAL (#litres_trial_promo) PASTELS (#litres_trial_promo) OIL PASTELS (#litres_trial_promo) (#u23b758e7-867b-59b3-bd40-a406f45033d3) Painting is a tactile and visual experience; in all good pictures there is a fascinating dialogue between the subject and the way the paint itself is applied and manipulated to express that subject. Whether you prefer the delicacy of watercolours, the richness of oils, the versatility of acrylics, the intricacy of tempera or the immediacy of gouache, the experience of working with a range of painting media will widen the scope of your artistic expression. Visit art-supply shops to stay in touch with what is new on the market, and don’t be afraid to experiment with unfamiliar materials and techniques. Oil paint constituents Oil paint consists of dry pigments ground in a natural drying oil such as linseed, or a semi-drying oil such as safflower or poppy. Some brands of oil paint are matured and then remade with more pigment in order to achieve the right consistency, but most are given additives, such as plasticizers, driers and wax, to improve their flexibility and make them consistent in texture and drying speed. Stabilizers may also be added to prevent the oil and pigment separating in the tubes during storage. Most manufacturers offer at least two grades of paint: artists’, or first quality, and students’, or sketching quality. Artists’ colours A selection of artists’ oil paints Artist-quality oil paints offer the widest range of colours and the greatest colour strength. They contain a high concentration of pigment, which is very finely ground with the finest-quality oils. Students’ colours A selection of students’ oil paints Students’ colours are cheaper than artists’ colours, because they are made in larger quantities and the colour range is more limited. The more expensive pigments, such as cadmiums and cobalts, are replaced with some cheaper, but equally permanent, alternatives, and these colour names are suffixed with the word ‘hue’. Students’ colours may have lower pigment levels and contain small amounts of fillers, such as chalk, which will slightly weaken the colour strength of the paint. Combining paints Students’ colours are perfectly adequate for the beginner to practise with, and it is even possible to cut costs by combining the two types: for example, using artists’ paints for the pure, intense colours and students’ paints for the earth colours, which are often just as good as in the artists’ range. Some artists use students’ colours for underpainting, before adding artists’ paints for the final layers. Size and price Oil paint tubes range from 5ml (0.17 US fl oz) to a generous 200ml (6.66 US fl oz). The most useful size of all is probably 37ml (1.25 US fl oz), and a larger tube of white – say 56ml (1.86 US fl oz) – works out more economical, since white is used more than most other colours. Artist-quality paints vary in price according to the initial cost of the pigment. In some brands, they are classified according to ‘series’, typically from 1 (the cheapest) to 7 (the most costly). The earth colours are the least expensive, while the cadmium colours will cost four times more. Some pigments, such as vermilion, are prohibitively expensive, and most manufacturers now replace them with modern synthetic pigments. Student-quality colours are sold at a uniform price. Drying times Fast-drying (approximately two days) Medium-drying (approximately five days) Slow-drying (five to eight days) The speed at which oil paint dries depends on the colour. Some pigments act upon the drying oils in which they are bound, speeding up the drying process; others slow it down (see here (#ulink_1acde665-a4c5-5075-95db-7c2aed73da55)). Earth pigments dry rapidly, acquiring a skin overnight, whereas alizarin crimson may need up to 10 days to become touch-dry. To accommodate these extremes, some paint manufacturers add drying agents to the slower-drying pigments; others grind fast-drying pigments with slower-drying oils, to obtain a paint range with more consistent qualities. Others add no drying agents, allowing the artist to decide whether to use fast-drying mediums. Tinting strength There is a variation in the tinting strength of different pigments. For example, Prussian blue and alizarin crimson will produce vivid colours when added in even very small quantities to white, whereas terre verte and raw umber become very pale when mixed with only a little white. When mixing a pale tint using strong colour, always add it to the white and in very small quantities – otherwise, you may get through a great deal of paint for little result. Differences Manufacturers do not formulate their paints in the same ways, so although colours in different brands may have the same names, their contents vary not only in the appearance of the colour but also in their cost, consistency, handling qualities, permanence and drying rates. Which white? The most important pigment in the oil painter’s palette is white, because it is used more than any other colour. It is therefore essential to use good-quality whites; even if you are using student-quality paints, it is worth buying a large tube of artist-quality white, as it has better covering power than the student grade. Several whites are available, each with different properties, although as a general rule titanium white is the most reliable and versatile (see here (#ulink_38733a18-1909-532d-927f-4fc209fb2f01)). Whites ground in poppy or safflower oil should not be used for priming or extensive underpainting. They are slow-drying, and can cause cracking of subsequent paint layers unless allowed to dry thoroughly. Use flake white, which is quick and thorough-drying, or one of the alkyd or underpainting whites. Alkyd paints These are made from pigments bound in an oil-modified synthetic resin. They handle in the same way as traditional oil paints, but have the advantage of being much faster-drying – in normal use, the paint surface is generally dry within an hour. Alkyds may be mixed with oil paints, which has the effect of speeding up the oils’ drying time and retarding that of the alkyds, so that all the colours dry at a relatively even rate. Any supports that are suitable for oil and acrylic paints may be used for alkyds, once primed with oil or acrylic primer. Water-friendly oil paints A selection of alkyd and water-friendly oil paints In recent years, a few manufacturers have produced ranges of oil paints in which the oil binder has been modified to mix with, rather than repel, water. This does not preclude the use of traditional oil-based mediums and diluents, but means that thinning paint and cleaning brushes can be done with water. The advantage is that this eliminates the use of solvents, to which many people are allergic, and avoids a possible build-up of potentially dangerous vapours. Caring for your paints Paints tend to solidify in the tube if left uncapped. Replace the cap once you have used the paint, and make sure the threads on the cap and neck remain clean. Stuck caps can be opened with pliers, or by holding the tube under hot running water. As a last measure, stand the tube upside down in turpentine or white spirit for a few minutes, so that the cap and top of the tube are covered. Always squeeze a tube of paint from the bottom upwards, thus ensuring that there is as little air as possible inside the tube. Avoiding waste Oil paints are expensive. A palette knife held at an oblique angle and scraped along a finished paint tube will help to remove the last scrap of paint. Pigment strength Prussian blue Alizarin crimson Terre verte Raw umber Note the contrast in tint between the two pigments on the left and those on the right, when they have all been mixed with the same amount of white. Drying speeds of oil paint The following is a guide to approximate drying speeds of pigments bound in linseed oil. The drying rates may vary between brands, and colours bound with safflower or poppy oil are relatively slow-drying. When colours are mixed together, their drying rates may be altered. Flake white Also known as lead white or silver white, this is a comparatively quick-drying, durable and flexible paint, widely used in underpainting. It accelerates the drying of colours mixed with it. Flake white lacks the opacity of titanium white and the whiteness of zinc white. It is harmful if it is swallowed, as it contains lead, so keep it out of the reach of children. Titanium white Also known as permanent white, this is the whitest and most opaque white, which dries very slowly to a soft, chalky film. Its strong covering power is useful for mixing tints, and for highlights and final painting. It is classed as non-hazardous. Zinc white This has a pure, cold white appearance which does not darken with time. It is semi-opaque, and is suitable for tinting and glazing, but not for underpainting. Zinc white dries very slowly to a hard, brittle film. It is classed as non-hazardous. SEE ALSO SUPPORTS (#u5b5d412a-94b8-5b1f-a655-298c83d3f160) BINDERS (#litres_trial_promo) MEDIUMS (#litres_trial_promo) BRUSHES (#litres_trial_promo) PIGMENTS (#litres_trial_promo) MIXING COLOURS (#litres_trial_promo) BASIC PALETTE (#litres_trial_promo) UNDERPAINTING (#litres_trial_promo) PIGMENTS (#litres_trial_promo) HEALTH & SAFETY (#litres_trial_promo) Keep colours clean Try to avoid using more than two or three colours in any one mixture. Any more than this, and the colours become lifeless and muddy. Always have a large jar of turpentine and a rag nearby, so that when you have finished with a particular colour you can clean the brush or palette knife thoroughly and not contaminate the next colour. Mixing methods When mixing oil paints on the palette, use either a brush or a palette knife. A knife is preferable for mixing large quantities of paint, and it will certainly save a lot of wear and tear on your brushes. When working fast and mixing small quantities of colour, however, a brush is more convenient. Old, worn brushes are useful for this purpose – never mix paint with sable brushes, as it quickly ruins them. Adding diluents Mediums and diluents should be added to paint gradually, and in small amounts. Including an excess of thinning agent may result in an underbound paint film that is prone to flaking. Mixing paint Fully mixing two colours produces a solid third colour; partly mixing them allows the two original colours to still be part of the mixture. Reusing oil colour Scrape paint off the palette with a knife and store in an airtight container for use next time round. Even ‘palette mud’ (the dull colour left when many colours have been mixed) can be useful – thin it down with turpentine and use it for tinting canvases and boards. Paint which has been exposed on the palette for long periods will have begun to oxidize, and is therefore not stable enough for use. If the paint feels gummy or it requires a lot of thinners to make it workable, then it should be discarded. Palette-knife method A palette knife is convenient for mixing large amounts of paint and avoids damaging your brushes. Use a scoop-and-slide action to mix the colours thoroughly. Brush method When mixing paint with a brush, use gentle sweeping and rotary motions in order to minimize excessive wear and tear on the bristles. SEE ALSO DILUENTS (#litres_trial_promo) MEDIUMS (#litres_trial_promo) BRUSHES (#litres_trial_promo) ACCESSORIES (#litres_trial_promo) Home preparation It is much cheaper to buy the raw materials than the ready-made tube colours, and the larger art-supply stores carry a wide range of raw pigments from which you can mix colours to your specific requirements. Finally, there is undoubtedly a lot of satisfaction and pleasure to be gained from working with colours that you have prepared yourself. Method (1) Mix the pigment and oil to a stiff paste with a palette knife. Spoon a handful of powdered pigment onto a glass slab, and make a well in it. Pour in a spoonful of oil, and mix to a stiff paste with a palette knife (1). Ensure that all the pigment is thoroughly wetted, but do try to use the minimum of oil to produce the stiffest workable paste. Too much oil may result in yellowing and wrinkling of the paint film. Mulling (2) Grind the pigment and oil mixture with a smooth figure-of-eight motion. Grind the pigment and oil mixture on the slab with a glass muller, using reasonable pressure and a continuous smooth, circular or figure-of-eight motion (2). Your weight should be well balanced over the muller. The objective is to disperse the pigment particles evenly through the binder and to achieve a smooth, glossy paint, free from grittiness. Be warned – mulling paint to the right consistency can take up to an hour, depending on the pigment! It is best to mull a small amount of pigment at a time, moving each freshly mulled batch to the edge of the slab. The resulting paint should be stiff enough to be workable while containing the minimum of oil. If the paint doesn’t ‘peak’ when lifted with the tip of a palette knife, it probably contains too much oil; add more pigment and mull again. Using lightweight pigments Those pigments that are fluffy or flyaway, due to their light weight and fine particle size (for instance, alizarin and the quinacridones), need wetting before they can be ground with oil. Saturate the pigment with white spirit until all the powder is wet, then leave to dry out a little on absorbent paper before mixing to a paste with oil. Filling the tubes (3) Pack the freshly mulled paint in empty collapsible tubes. First loosen the cap of the tube a little so that air can escape. Hold the tube upright and fill from the open end with a palette knife. The freshly mulled handmade paint can be stored in empty collapsible tubes which are obtainable from major art-supply stores. As a guide, roughly 300g (10.6oz) of paint should fill a 150ml (5 US fl oz) tube. Loosen the cap of the tube a little so that air can escape as you fill it. Hold the tube upright and scoop the paint into the open end, using a palette knife (3). Fill the tube to within about 25mm (1in) of the open end, occasionally tapping the tube on the table to settle the pigment and disperse any air bubbles. Pinch the tube 30–40mm (1?–?in) from the end to expel any air. Wipe the tube clean, then make a double fold at the end by folding it over the blade of a clean palette knife. Safety precautions When handling dry pigments, wear a dust mask, to avoid breathing in the pigment particles. Do not handle toxic pigments without a mask and gloves. Disposable face masks are not adequate; respiratory masks designed for use with toxic dusts are available from major art-supply stores and safety equipment companies. Do not eat or drink when working with dry pigments. Keep all materials out of reach of children. Label all dry pigments so that they can be identified in case of accident. Shelf life Without the addition of any stabilizers and preservatives, handmade paint should always be used within a few months of making. Improving texture Some pigments, such as ultramarine, viridian and zinc white, make a rather stringy paint. To improve the texture, use 4 parts linseed oil to 1 part poppy oil as a binder. Amounts of oil Some pigments require quite a lot of oil to make a smooth paste – alizarin crimson, for example, needs far more oil than flake white. SEE ALSO BINDERS (#litres_trial_promo) MEDIUMS (#litres_trial_promo) HEALTH & SAFETY (#litres_trial_promo) Using oil sticks These sticks can be considered as either a drawing or a painting medium. They combine the richness of oil colour with the freedom and directness of pastels or charcoal. The chunky sticks glide across the support, making expressive, flowing lines. Some brands are thixotropic – they become more creamy in texture when applied with slight pressure, and harden again on the support. The lightfastness rating is the same as for tube oil colours; the range of colours is smaller, but the basic oils palette is sufficient. Blending and brushing Different colours can be blended together on the support, using a brush or a painting knife. Alternatively, special colourless sticks are available: these aid the blending process and increase the transparency of the colours. The paint can also be brushed out on the support, using the same solvents and mediums employed with tube oil colours. The end of the stick may be dipped into the medium or solvent before working on the support, thereby improving the flow of colour. You can even apply the paint in thickly impasted layers and model it with a paintbrush or knife. The paints remain workable for several hours. Compatibility Oil sticks are compatible with a range of painting and drawing media, including conventional oil, alkyd and acrylic colours, oil pastels and pencil. They can be used on primed canvas or hardboard (Masonite), acid-free sized paper, fabrics, and other surfaces. Drying times The actual drying time depends on temperature and the type of surface being painted, but on the whole oil paint in stick form dries more quickly than tube oil paints. It is important to note, however, that paint sticks should not be used for underpainting if tube paint is to be applied on top. The reason is that although paint sticks dry faster than tube paints, they dry to a more flexible film, due to their high wax content; if less flexible paint is applied on top. This may lead eventually to cracking of the paint surface. First-time use Brand-new oil sticks must have the film removed after the protective wrapper has been taken off. Protective skin An invisible, dry film forms on the surface of the stick, and helps to keep it clean when not in use. The film is removed from the tip of the stick by rubbing it with a cloth, and re-forms in a day or two after use to keep the paint from drying out while being stored. Using diluents You can work on a support that has been given a liberal wash of turpentine, or dip the tip of the oil stick into diluent or medium, to create a more liquid line. Outdoor uses Sticks are particularly useful when you’re painting outdoors, as they remove the need to carry some of the accessories associated with tube oil paints. Different brands As with tube oil colours, there are variations in the texture, handling properties and drying rates between one brand of paint stick and another, and thus it is advisable to sample different brands. However, do not intermix brands in the same painting, as the chemicals may be incompatible. Types of stick The selection of oil sticks shown here includes some of the iridescent colours available. Oil-stick versatility The five square-format examples show some basic oil-stick techniques. The two sketchbook paintings used oil sticks and oil pastels, brushed out with turpentine. The framed picture was worked directly with oil sticks and then blended and brushed out with turpentine. SEE ALSO SUPPORTS (#u5b5d412a-94b8-5b1f-a655-298c83d3f160) BASIC PALETTE (#litres_trial_promo) DILUENTS (#litres_trial_promo) MEDIUMS (#litres_trial_promo) KNIFE PAINTING (#litres_trial_promo) Titanium white Permanence excellent (ASTM I). A very bright opaque white, with high tinting strength and slow drying time. Mixes well, maintains its intensity. French ultramarine Permanence excellent (ASTM I). A transparent colour, with high tinting strength, medium-to-slow drying time, and a deep, warm blue hue. The most versatile of the blues; mix with burnt umber to make interesting dark shades. Cobalt blue Permanence excellent (ASTM I). A transparent colour, with weak tinting strength and a fast drying time. It is greener and paler than ultramarine. Useful for skies and for mixing greens; very expensive, but good for glazing. Yellow ochre Permanence excellent (ASTM I). A fairly opaque colour, with weak tinting strength, medium-to-slow drying time, and a dark yellow hue verging on brown. Indispensable for landscape painting and for toning down mixtures. Raw sienna Permanence excellent (ASTM I). A transparent colour, with weak tinting strength and fast-to-medium drying time. A warmer hue than yellow ochre. Mixes well, and is excellent for glazing. Burnt sienna Permanence excellent (ASTM I) A transparent colour, with strong tinting strength, fast-to-medium drying time, and a rich, reddish-brown hue. It is useful for modifying sky colours, and is a good glazing colour. Permanent rose Permanence excellent (ASTM I). A very transparent colour, with very high tinting strength, slow drying time, and a bright pink-red hue with a violet tinge. A light-fast alternative to alizarin crimson; though expensive, a little goes a long way. Viridian Permanence excellent (ASTM I). A transparent colour, with good tinting strength, slow drying time, and bright, deep green hue with a bluish tinge. Mix with white to make cool greens. Cadmium red Permanence excellent (ASTM I). An opaque colour, with good tinting strength, slow drying time, and a bright, warm red hue. A strong, pure pigment. Cadmium yellow Permanence excellent (ASTM I). An opaque colour, with good tinting strength, slow drying time, and a warm hue with a hint of orange. Mix with cadmium red to form cadmium orange. Lemon yellow Permanence excellent (ASTM I). A transparent colour, with good tinting strength, medium drying time, and a cool, pale yellow hue. Forms delicate, cool greens when mixed with blues. Winsor violet Starter palette Permanence excellent (ASTM I). A transparent colour, with high tinting strength, medium drying time, and a strong, warm hue. Very useful for modifying blues in skies, and making greys with yellows, browns and greens. The ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) codes for lightfastness: ASTM l: excellent lightfastness ASTM ll: very good lightfastness ASTM Ill: not sufficiently lightfast Variations Roy Freer’s work uses rich, saturated hues. He sees his subjects in terms of colour, rather than tone. This painting employs his ‘spectrum palette’, which consists of lemon yellow, cadmium yellow yellow ochre, cadmium orange, vermilion, rose madder, cobalt blue, cobalt violet and viridian. Roy Freer Blue Pathways Oil on canvas 100 ? 120cm (40 ? 48in) Pigments may vary both in their hue and handling characteristics, according to the manufacturer. This applies particularly to the earth colours -ochres, umbers and siennas – which are natural pigments and vary in hue according to source. Some burnt siennas, for example, are yellowish, while others have a reddish tint. Terre verte Permanence excellent (ASTM I). A transparent colour, with low tinting strength, medium-to-slow drying time, and a pale greenish-grey hue. An excellent green for landscapes, it is best applied in thin glazes. Raw umber Permanence excellent (ASTM I). A transparent colour, with good tinting strength, fast drying time, and a greenish-brown hue. Raw umber is a very useful colour for underpainting, as it dries rapidly. Phthalocyanine blue Permanence excellent (ASTM I). A transparent colour, with a very high tinting strength, medium-to-slow drying time, and a very bright, deep blue hue. More permanent and more intense than Prussian blue. Alizarin crimson Permanence very weak (ASTM III). A very transparent colour, with high tinting strength, very slow drying time, and a cool, slightly bluish-red hue. It tends to fade in thin washes, or when mixed with white. Ivory black Permanence excellent (ASTM I). An opaque colour, with good tinting strength, very slow drying time, and a slight brown tinge. Mixing ivory black with yellow makes a versatile green. Auxiliary colours Should you wish to augment your basic palette with additional colours for particular subjects, you may find some of the colours shown here useful. Binder composition Pigments for oil paints are ground into a drying vegetable oil, which is known as a vehicle or binder. When bound, the pigment particles are suspended in the oil and can be easily brushed onto the painting surface. When the oil has dried by absorbing oxygen, it seals the pigment to the surface. Linseed oil This oil, pressed from the seeds of the flax plant, is available in several forms, and acts both as a binder and as an ingredient in oil-painting mediums. Linseed oil dries quickly at first, but the complete drying process will take many years. It oxidizes into a tough, leathery film which hardens and becomes more transparent on ageing. Конец ознакомительного фрагмента. Текст предоставлен ООО «ЛитРес». Прочитайте эту книгу целиком, купив полную легальную версию (https://www.litres.ru/simon-jennings/complete-artist-s-manual-the-definitive-guide-to-materials/?lfrom=688855901) на ЛитРес. 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